Course Development Team

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3 Course Development Team Head of Programme : Dr Jennifer Ang Course Developer(s) : Dr Lim Yiru : Dr Lye Kit Ying : Dr Joel Gn Technical Writer : Chloe Chong, ETP Video Production : Dr Joel Gn 2018 Singapore University of Social Sciences. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the Educational Technology & Production, Singapore University of Social Sciences. ISBN Educational Technology & Production Singapore University of Social Sciences 463 Clementi Road Singapore Release V2.0

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5 Table of Contents Table of Contents Course Guide 1. Welcome... CG-2 2. Course Description and Aims... CG-3 3. Learning Outcomes... CG-5 4. Learning Material... CG-6 5. Assessment Overview... CG-7 6. Course Schedule... CG Learning Mode... CG-12 Study Unit 1: Introduction to Semiotics Learning Outcomes... SU1-2 Overview... SU1-3 Chapter 1: The Study of Signs... SU1-4 Chapter 2: Applications of Semiotics... SU1-10 Chapter 3: Semiotics in Everyday Life... SU1-13 Summary... SU1-17 References... SU1-18 Study Unit 2: Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Learning Outcomes... SU2-2 Overview... SU2-3 i

6 Table of Contents Chapter 1: How to Analyse a Film... SU2-4 Chapter 2: Cultural Symbols in My Neighbour Totoro... SU2-16 Summary... SU2-21 Study Unit 3: The Graphic Novel Learning Outcomes... SU3-2 Overview... SU3-3 Chapter 1: What is a Graphic Novel?... SU3-4 Chapter 2: Reading the Text... SU3-10 Summary... SU3-16 References... SU3-17 Study Unit 4: Narrative and History Learning Outcomes... SU4-2 Overview... SU4-3 Chapter 1: What and How We Mean... SU4-4 Chapter 2: The Art of Narratives... SU4-10 Summary... SU4-16 References... SU4-17 Study Unit 5: The Novel as Prose Learning Outcomes... SU5-2 Overview... SU5-3 ii

7 Table of Contents Chapter 1: The Novel Form... SU5-4 Chapter 2: Realistic Invention... SU5-6 Chapter 3: Meaning & Metaphor... SU5-8 Chapter 4: Symbolism, Allegory & Myth... SU5-10 Summary... SU5-13 Study Unit 6: Utopia & Dystopia Learning Outcomes... SU6-2 Overview... SU6-3 Chapter 1: What is Dystopia?... SU6-4 Chapter 2: Utopia vs. Dystopia... SU6-6 Chapter 3: Dystopia in The Handmaid s Tale... SU6-8 Chapter 4: Sociocultural Relevance... SU6-10 Summary... SU6-13 iii

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9 List of Figures List of Figures Figure SU1-5 Figure SU1-6 Figure SU1-9 Figure SU1-13 Figure 2.1 Paddy fields in the Japanese countryside... SU2-8 Figure 2.2 view from Kanta s house... SU2-8 Figure 2.3 Thunderstorm... SU2-8 Figure 2.4 Satsuki is crawling through the tree tunnel in order to get to Totoro s clearing... SU2-9 Figure 2.5 Totoro approaches the girls at the bus stop... SU2-10 Figure 2.6 Totoro gifts the girls a packet of acorns... SU2-11 Figure 2.7 Mei s first encounter with Totoro... SU2-12 Figure 2.8 Mei imitating Totoro s roar... SU2-12 Figure 2.9 Granny sharing her vegetables with the girls... SU2-14 Figure 2.10 Torii... SU2-16 Figure 2.11 The Kusakabes paying their respects to the camphor tree... SU2-16 Figure 2.12 Satsuki asking for permission to share the shelter... SU2-19 Figure 2.13 Mei finding statues of forest guardians... SU2-19 Figure 3.1 Transitions in Graphic Novels... SU3-14 v

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11 List of Lesson Recordings List of Lesson Recordings Study Unit 1, Lecture 1... SU1-4 Study Unit 2, Lecture 1... SU2-4 Study Unit 3, Lecture... SU3-15 Study Unit 4, Lecture... SU4-15 Study Unit 5 Lecture... SU5-12 Study Unit 6 Lecture... SU6-5 vii

12 List of Lesson Recordings viii

13 Course Guide Critical Readings

14 Course Guide 1. Welcome Presenter: Dr Joel Gn This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan. Click here to watch the video. i Welcome to the course Critical Readings, a 5 credit unit (CU) course. This Study Guide will be your personal learning resource to take you through the course learning journey. The guide is divided into two main sections the Course Guide and Study Units. The Course Guide describes the structure for the entire course and provides you with an overview of the Study Units. It serves as a roadmap of the different learning components within the course. This Course Guide contains important information regarding the course learning outcomes, learning materials and resources, assessment breakdown and additional course information. i CG-2

15 Course Guide 2. Course Description and Aims The ability to read critically is a key step towards attaining strategic critical thinking abilities. Critical Readings enables students to develop critical reading skills by harnessing the semiotic approach to read, interpret and evaluate texts. The course explores texts via the study of narrative strategies that are relevant to the production and construction of meaning. Selected readings will elicit engagement with socio-historical, political and aesthetic contexts in which meaning is produced, emphasizing the structures and ambiguities underlying the interpretation and understanding of texts. The emphasis of this course is on the study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, taking into account the contexts in which meaning is produced. Works of literature are useful in this respect as they emerge out of the confluence of various factors, such as language constructions, figurative composition, and social, historical and aesthetic contexts. Course Structure This course is a 5-credit unit course presented over 6 weeks. There are six Study Units in this course. The following provides an overview of each Study Unit. Study Unit 1 Introduction to Semiotics This unit provides an introduction to semiotics, and explains how the study of signs is used in everyday situations. It provides an examination of literary devices that are part of the system of signs, and how they establish and maintain meaning in texts. CG-3

16 Course Guide Study Unit 2 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film This unit helps you to examine film and literary devices and symbols employed in films. It explains how these devices and symbols are used to represent cultural beliefs, and contribute to story-telling in a film. Study Unit 3 Reading a Graphic Novel This unit describes the structure of a graphic novel and helps you think about how the different elements of a graphic text interact with the reader so as to generate meaningful communication and transmit ideas. Study Unit 4 Narrative & History This unit helps you understand the relationship between different narratives and historical accounts, and reflects on how narratives comment on, undermine, or corroborate one another, and the accompanying implications. Study Unit 5 The Novel as Prose This unit will introduce the structure and features of the novel as a prose text. It explains the use and importance of key literary devices in the communication of ideas and themes, through an examination of the imagery and references within a fictional work. Study Unit 6 Utopia & Dystopia This unit considers the similarities and differences between of utopia and dystopia, along with their use and significance in various texts. It provides a detailed explanation of their characteristics, and shows how these characteristics are connected to, and derived from current sociocultural issues. CG-4

17 Course Guide 3. Learning Outcomes Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component) By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Identify signs and symbols within a text. 2. Discuss narrative strategies and form. 3. Examine how semiotics function in the production and construction of meaning. Key Skills (Practical Component) By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1. Analyse the process of reading, understanding and constructing meaning. 2. Illustrate arguments using evidence from the text. 3. Relate theoretical concepts to real-world experience. CG-5

18 Course Guide 4. Learning Material The following is a list of the required learning materials to complete this course. Required Textbook(s) Atwood, M. (1985). The Handmaid s Tale. London: Vintage Classics. Hara, T. (Producer), & Miyazaki, H. (Director). (1988). My Neighbour Totoro [Motion picture]. Japan: Studio Ghibli. Liew, S. (2015). The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye. Singapore: Epigram Books. CG-6

19 Course Guide 5. Assessment Overview The overall assessment weighting for this course is as follows: Assessment Description Weight Allocation Assignment 1 Pre-Course Online Quiz 20% 6 Study Units To be completed ahead of first face-to-face session A maximum of 3 attempts allowed per study unit The highest score will be recorded Minimum passing mark: 60% Failure to pass results in a course withdrawal Assignment 2 Group-Based Assignment (GBA) 15% ONE graphic poster on a pre-set topic related to the NE video, Singapore as Utopia ONE 500-word summary (Times New Roman, font 12) explaining and discussing the presentation of ideas in the poster. Scoring Criteria: CG-7

20 Course Guide Assessment Description Weight Allocation Content 60 marks Language 20 marks Organisation 20 marks Assignment 3 Individual Tutor-marked Assignment 25% (TMA) word essay (Times New Roman, font 12); synthesis of the various course learning outcomes through ideas relating to thematic issues and philosophical concerns in a selected course text. Scoring Criteria: Readability 10 marks Argumentation 10 marks Content 80 marks Examination Open-book exam 40% 2-hour written examination consisting of questions requiring extended writing on topics related to the selected course texts. TOTAL 100% The following section provides important information regarding Assessments. CG-8

21 Course Guide Continuous Assessment: There will be continuous assessment in the form of a pre-course online quiz for each study unit, one group-based assignment (GBA) and one individual tutor-marked assignment (TMA). In total, this continuous assessment will constitute 60 percent of overall student assessment for this course. All three components are compulsory and are non-substitutable. These assignments will test conceptual understanding of both the fundamental and more advanced concepts and applications that underlie the study of semiotics and reading. It is imperative that you read through your assignment questions and submission instructions before embarking on your assignment. Examination: The final (2-hour) written exam will constitute the other 40 percent of overall student assessment and will test the ability to apply concepts related to semiotics to the texts studied, and the ability to formulate arguments and articulate ideas. Only topics related to the graphic novel and novel will be examinable. To prepare for the exam, you are advised to review Specimen or Past Year Exam Papers available on Learning Management System. Passing Mark: To successfully pass the course, you must obtain a minimum passing mark of 40 percent for both the OCAS and the OES. That is, students must obtain at least a mark of 40 percent for the combined assessments and also at least a mark of 40 percent for the final exam. For detailed information on the Course grading policy, please refer to The Student Handbook ( Award of Grades section under Assessment and Examination Regulations). The Student Handbook is available from the Student Portal. Non-graded Learning Activities: Activities for the purpose of self-learning are present in each study unit. These learning activities are meant to enable you to assess your understanding and achievement of the learning outcomes. The type of activities can be in the form of Quizzes, Review Questions, CG-9

22 Course Guide Application-Based Questions, or something similar. You are expected to complete the suggested activities either independently and/or in groups. CG-10

23 Course Guide 6. Course Schedule To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your Course Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignments, Selfassessments, and Examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal for the updated Course Schedule. Note: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any announcements and latest updates. CG-11

24 Course Guide 7. Learning Mode The learning process for this course is structured along the following lines of learning: a. Self-study guided by the study guide units. Independent study will require at least 3 hours per week. b. Working on assignments, either individually or in groups. c. Classroom Seminar sessions (3 hours each session, 6 sessions in total). istudyguide You may be viewing the istudyguide version, which is the mobile version of the Study Guide. The istudyguide is developed to enhance your learning experience with interactive learning activities and engaging multimedia. Depending on the reader you are using to view the istudyguide, you will be able to personalise your learning with digital bookmarks, note-taking and highlight sections of the guide. Interaction with Instructor and Fellow Students Although flexible learning learning at your own pace, space and time is a hallmark at SUSS, you are encouraged to engage your instructor and fellow students in online discussion forums. Sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your learning and crystallise your thinking. Academic Integrity As a student of SUSS, it is expected that you adhere to the academic standards stipulated in The Student Handbook, which contains important information regarding academic policies, academic integrity and course administration. It is necessary that you read and understand the information stipulated in the Student Handbook, prior to embarking on the course. CG-12

25 Study Unit Introduction to Semiotics 1

26 Introduction to Semiotics Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Recognise the process of signification 2. List the three types of signs 3. Identify literary devices 4. Identify patterns and discontinuities in written and/or visual texts SU1-2

27 Introduction to Semiotics Overview In this study unit, we will learn what semiotics is, and how it is very much a part of our everyday lives. We will consider literary devices that are part of the system of signs, and how literary devices establish and maintain meaning in texts. SU1-3

28 Introduction to Semiotics Chapter 1: The Study of Signs Lesson Recording Study Unit 1, Lecture 1 Why do we read? And what is semiotics? We read to gather information in our everyday lives; and reading is the process of interpreting and understanding the message embedded in written words, images, and symbols. Reading is more than just the literal action of deciphering what is written on the page, and a text need not be limited to that of the written. As you will see in the rest of the course, a text could be a graphic novel (pictorial and written) or a film (visual and auditory), or the more familiar literary prose (written) just to name a few. Reading is thus an active process of gathering information, interpreting signs and symbols, and understanding the intended messages, regardless of the medium of the text. As active readers, we question the way in which language is used in the written and/ or visual text. This study of signs, and of meaning-making is also known as Semiotics. Semiotics examines how we use linguistic and non-linguistic languages to communicate through various mediums, paying attention to conventions that govern the use of language. An important thing to note is that communication is not specific to the use of the written and spoken language; language also encompasses physical language, and other systems in which meaning is expressed. This consideration of other forms of language will be discussed in further detail in the other study units. Communicating with signs works on the basis of a set of accepted signifiers, and grammatical conventions. This is the reason why we are often taught names of objects and ideas before we are taught the proper rules of grammar. This set of accepted signifiers is important because it ensures that how we utter and/or perform and understand language SU1-4

29 Introduction to Semiotics is mostly consistent. After all, you cannot one day decide that an apple is now a chair and expect your community to be able to understand you. Linguistic and non-linguistic sign systems Ferdinand de Saussure, a linguist and semiotician, believes that the relationship between a word and the concept it is meant to represent/signify is arbitrary. Take for example, the word, apple. It is in no way identical to the fruit or the concept of the fruit but we immediately know which fruit it signifies when we read or hear it. Even onomatopoeic words such as meow and tick-tock are at best, linguistic approximations of sounds made by a cat and a clock respectively, and these written words themselves bear no natural resemblance to the sounds we hear. Process of signification Figure 1.1 (Source: Lye Kit Ying) The relationship between the word (signifier) and the object or concept (signified) it refers to constitutes the sign. To understand a sign, we can begin by examining the denotative and connotative meanings of the word (signifier). Denotation refers to the actual meaning of words. Words and phrases and sentences, in consequence, are presented exactly as they mean. The denotative expression of words has the implication of being direct, uncomplicated and neutral. If you look in the dictionary, apple refers to a usually small round fruit from a particular species of tree. That is the SU1-5

30 Introduction to Semiotics denotative meaning of the word, apple. However, we need to remember that a word s denotative meaning may differ in different cultures and contexts. Take for example, apple is also a term used in bowling, and if we were in a bowling alley or discussing a bowling game, the word apple will no doubt refer to an event specific to the game. Connotation refers to the associations that can be drawn from the use of words. Psychological, intellectual and emotional implications of words can be as important as their literal meanings. Take for example, associations to the word, apple, include juicy, crunchy, red and even our memories of reading Snow White and the Seven Dwarves. Our personal experiences and feelings about apple (the fruit) are inevitably evoked when we see or hear apple. And because of our familiarity with the language, and with the very visual nature of our interactions with the world, we are able to put an image to the word (signifier) and name or spell an object or concept (signified) almost simultaneously. This two-way process of interpreting the word and visualisation of the concept is also known as signification. However, Apple can also mean something else in another context, and this is not the same as when the word has a different denotative meaning. Depending on the receiver, and the context in which the signifier, apple is uttered, the signified changes: Figure 1.2 (Source: Public Domain) The literal meaning of the word, apple does not change, it still refers to the fruit (or a bowling term) but in this case, it refers to the fruit which is a logo for a popular tech brand. SU1-6

31 Introduction to Semiotics Needless to say, the connotation of apple changes too when it signifies something that is quite different. Instead of juicy, and crunchy, the word apple evokes feelings such as excitement and anticipation (for the latest apple product), and even entrepreneur, and turtleneck, words commonly associated with one of its late founders, Steve Jobs. From this example, we see that the signifier is meaningful only when the receiver (the reader) is able to make the connection between the word and the concept. Thus, it is imperative that we are aware of feelings, moods, expectations, social and personal experiences when we attempt to interpret signs. Ferdinand de Saussure also believes that the meanings of words are relational rather than of having a fixed value. This can be best explained with numerical patterns we have come across in primary school mathematics. Mathematical deductions allow us to fill in the rest of the pattern, and we know that the next number is 21. Yet, these numbers do not possess any physical resemblances to the quantity of items they are referring to. Thus, much like how we form mathematical patterns, how we assign meanings and values to a word and what it signifies is dependent on its relationship with another word, and even to the rest of the words within the same category. Take a look at this series of words: dinghy, sampan, yacht, ship, cruise These words have no obvious relationships to what they signify but we know that they are referring to transportation devices used on water, and they can be differentiated by size. A yacht is larger than a sampan but smaller than a ship and by virtue of that, the value of yacht is determined. For the connotations of The family of five sailed on a sampan and The family of five sailed on a yacht are very different even though the general SU1-7

32 Introduction to Semiotics meaning is that the family is travelling on sea when we are able to assign a value to the word (signifier) in question. Conversely, words that signify larger concepts such as good and evil are usually considered as part of a paired-opposite, and we assign meaning and value to these words accordingly. In paired-opposites, meaning is derived by difference or an absence of the quality inherent in the concept listed on the left of the pair. Consider this paired opposite: light/dark. We can measure the amount of light in a room or a space but we cannot measure the amount of darkness. We know that it is dark because there is little to no light, thus we learn and measure the dark by the absence of light. These interpretations of a signifier s meaning and value is sometimes complicated when the word has multiple meanings. These words are also known as homonyms. Take for example, the noun, bark. It could signify the outer layer of the tree or the sound which the dog makes, depending on the context in which the word bark is uttered. Surely a person who reads She carved the date on the bark would not interpret bark as that which is made by a dog. However, there are instances when the intended meaning is lost on the receiver or reader, especially when the speaker or writer is intentionally using words with multiple meanings to create ambiguity in their writings. The text itself is thus opened to multiple interpretations because we each approach the written word differently. Peircean semiotics Charles Sanders Peirce, a philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, offers a slightly different approach to the study of signs. According to Peirce, there are 3 types of signs in semiotics: symbolic; iconic; and indexical. The symbolic sign has no obvious connection between signifier and signified. Since there is no obvious and natural connection between the word and the concept, the symbolic sign works only when uttered in an agreed social context. Much like the relationship between the earlier example of apple, and the fruit, we know that the word apple refers to the fruit not because the word bears any resemblance to the signified, but only because we (users of the English language) have agreed and learned that the word signifies the object. SU1-8

33 Introduction to Semiotics The iconic sign bears physical similarity to the signified. Non-linguistic signifiers are good examples of iconic signs. Take a look at this road sign warning of children crossing: Figure 1.3 (Source: Public Domain) Does the road sign signify the actual action and objects? The indexical sign is a signifier that is indicative of the concept being signified. One good example would be the use of smoke to indicate a fire. We come across these indexical signs often, and especially when we watch a film or read a book. Most good writers use indexical signs to show rather than tell as they engage their readers and viewers in the process of meaning-meaning. Activity 1 Which category of signs do sensory engagement(the articulation of sights, sounds and touch) fall under? The study of signs reveals the way we learn about the world. Regardless of which branch of semiotics we apply, we can agree that how we see the world is dependent on how we use language to learn about it. SU1-9

34 Introduction to Semiotics Chapter 2: Applications of Semiotics Writers often make use of literary devices to get their points across. These literary devices are extensions to the system of signs. When we decipher these literary devices, we are engaging in the process of meaning-making. The following are some of the commonlyused literary devices. Do remember that some of these literary devices will also relate to the other study units in this course. A metaphor is a figurative device that creates an analogy between two ideas: one known to us, and the other for us to uncover. The analogical relationship that emerges is meant to explain or extend our understanding of that unknown quality. For example, if Peter were to declare you are the light of my life to Mary. We know that Mary is not the light but we understand what Peter is trying to convey to her; that she possesses the qualities associated with light. The relationship between ideas in a metaphor is formed by inference and connotation rather than direct explanation. A simile is a slightly less complex kind of figurative device. It is the illustration of similarity between two ideas, even though they may not be obviously similar. Similes are often recognisable by the use of indicators such as: like, as, as if and as though. An example of a simile would be she is as gentle as a lamb. Metonymy is the use of a part that is representative of a whole. An example is the use of the crown (part), an accessory worn by the King or Queen, to represent the monarchy (whole). Symbolism refers to the use of a set of words or objects to represent an abstract idea. These words or ideas signify qualities that are more than the words literal meanings. Take for example, the use of doves or to symbolise peace. The dove and do not actually resemble the concept of peace. The association of the crown with the monarchy in a metonymy, by comparison, is more tangible. Symbolism is sometimes confused with metonymy. You only need to remember that symbols function to represent an abstract idea, and its relationship with the idea it is meant to signify is arbitrary. SU1-10

35 Introduction to Semiotics Personification is the association of human (and sometimes animate) qualities to objects or concepts that are inanimate. Often, this is done by addressing the inanimate as if it were human. A good example would be William Wordsworth s poem, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, in which he describes the daffodils to be fluttering and dancing in the breeze. By describing flowers to be dancers moving in the wind, Wordsworth allows his readers to better imagine the scene of a charming English countryside in which every living thing is invigorated. Personification may seem like a simple ornamentation to basic expressions, but it has a more crucial role than that personification is a way to engage with the relationships that emerge from, and involve, the world around us, concepts and ideologies, and even the depths of our inner lives. Personification explains our tendency to think of the world around us as something we can recognise and articulate. Imagery refers to how certain mental impressions are expressed through the course of rhetoric expression. These impressions have a sensory basis that corresponds to the reader s own experiences and perceptions. The most common types of imagery that are invoked are: visual, auditory, gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell). Allegory uses symbolic figures, actions or expressions to represent an aspect of human existence/condition. It is usually used to convey moral, spiritual, or political messages. You will learn more about the use of allegory in study unit 5. Irony refers to the gap between meaning and understanding that takes place between what is expressed and what is intended. A reader is able to discern the irony when s/ he is able to make the connections between the intended meaning and the superficial understanding of what is being signified. As active readers, we are always making connections between signs, and between signifier and signified. To read critically is to participate and decipher the processes of meaningmaking, identifying relationships between words, and even between the written and/or visual text and the real world. It is important to consider the interaction between the text and its context because language is very much affected by our social, political, and cultural SU1-11

36 Introduction to Semiotics environment. Remember, language is constantly evolving and that explains why words are added to the dictionary every year. SU1-12

37 Introduction to Semiotics Chapter 3: Semiotics in Everyday Life While theories of semiotics and the study of signs may appear to be abstract at times, the interpretation of signs is very much a part of our everyday lives. As we have seen earlier in this study unit, we are always already engaging in the process of signification whenever we process information. One good example of the everyday use of semiotics is advertisements. Regardless of its medium printed matter (with or without graphics), or jingles and radio commercials, advertisements make use of the system of signs to communicate with its target audience. Figure 1.4 (Source: Public Domain) Take a look at this poster of Rosie the Riveter. Apart from the caption, We Can Do It! there are no other written text in the poster. The rest of the poster consists of nonwritten signs that work with our understanding of their connotative meanings. Some of the questions we can ask in our approach to interpreting the poster include: What are the main colours used? SU1-13

38 Introduction to Semiotics red, blue, white, yellow What do these colours represent? red, blue, and white American flag, yellow optimism, positivity Who is the subject of the poster? woman, beautifully made up, in a mechanic overalls middle-class, working woman, labourer What does her body language suggest? flexing her bicep, not smiling, arched eyebrows, stern strong woman, with a look of determination When was this poster designed and published? Hairstyle and make up similar to 1940s styles (this requires some research) When we piece these observations together, we can guess that the poster was made during World War II (1940s); the woman in mechanic overalls is a tough labourer (her bicep and stern determination); and the colours of her outfit encourages receivers of this poster to associate her to the American flag (red, blue, and white) which inspires patriotism. A bit of research will confirm that the poster of Rosie the Riveter was made to appeal to women to fill in the gaps in the workforce, specifically the munitions industry during World War II, as the men were away fighting. The iconic value of Rosie the Riveter has changed throughout the years because of the various social, cultural, and political movements since the war ended. Eventually, Rosie the Riveter carries with her connotations of female strength and some sense of duty to a particular community, if not the country. This evolution of Rosie the Riveter is an example of how meaning is affected by both the text s context, and the receivers environments and perspectives. Culture is another example of the use of signs in our everyday lives. Culture, be it tangible or not, is a language which operates with a system of signs. What is the first thing that SU1-14

39 Introduction to Semiotics comes to your mind when I say Singaporean culture? A variety of images or words come to your mind perhaps an image of the Merlion, or of a long queue of people at a fast-food restaurant, or even Singlish words such as kiasu and shiok. These images and words bear no actual resemblance or any natural relationship with the island we call Singapore. Instead, it is their connotative meanings that allows us to put together a picture of what Singapore might be, and what sort of culture we have as compared to other cultures of the world. Moreover, the variations of signifiers meanings across cultures present a strong case for how a word or signifier can have a different meaning when uttered in a different cultural context. Take for example, the word gift. Gift in English means a present, or the act of presenting someone with a present. However, gift in German means poison or toxic. Much like the previous example of how the denotative meaning of apple changes when the conversation s context is changed, the connotations that come with gift changes when we are made aware of the cultural context in which the word is uttered in. Method to analyse texts and/or films Reading and interpreting literary devices employed in texts allow us to make some observations about the text, but merely interpreting these literary devices does not enable us to fully develop theories or arguments about the text. It is only when we make connections between these observations and interpretations that we can arrive at welldeveloped arguments. Take for example, the use of blue jacket in a novel. Just because we know that blue is usually used to represent feelings of sadness or depression, it does not automatically mean that the character wearing a blue jacket is sad. The blue jacket is significant only if it is mentioned repeatedly. Moreover, the contexts within which the blue jacket is mentioned need to be compared and analysed. Are they more or less similar? Do they come together to piece together an important component to the narrative? Only when we have identified patterns, continuities or discontinuities, then can we argue that the blue jacket is meant to signify the character s state of mind. Of course, there are many ways to analyse a text, and identifying significant patterns or discontinuities from close readings of the text is one of the basic methods to approach a SU1-15

40 Introduction to Semiotics text or film. You will be introduced to more methods of reading in the following study units in this course, and it will be useful to note that most methods and approaches to analysing a text involve interpreting signs, and identifying patterns. Watch Singapore as Utopia (Access video via Canvas) SU1-16

41 Introduction to Semiotics Summary In this study unit, we learnt what the process of signification is, and the three types of signs: symbolic, iconic, and indexical. We also learned some of the more commonly used literary devices. In addition, we also learnt how to read critically and apply semiotics to our everyday lives. You should now proceed to complete Pre-Course Quiz SU1 in Canvas. SU1-17

42 Introduction to Semiotics References Wordsworth, William. The Complete Poetical Works. Macmillan and Co., 1888; Bartleby.com, SU1-18

43 Study Unit 2 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film

44 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Examine film and literary devices, and how they influence mean-making 2. Construct arguments in relation to human and nature, and culture SU2-2

45 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Overview In this study unit, we will learn how to examine film and literary devices in order to construct arguments relating to issues discussed in films. We will also examine how cultural symbols and signs are used to convey meaning. SU2-3

46 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Chapter 1: How to Analyse a Film Lesson Recording Study Unit 2, Lecture 1 What is film? A film uses a series of moving images or visual elements to depict events in order to tell a story. While cinematic techniques such as film speed, tracking, split screens, editing pace just to name a few are crucial to the final product which we see on the screen, the focus in this study unit is not on the technical aspects of film criticism. Instead, we are going to read the film as if it is a visual and written text, and focus on devices that directly influence meaning-making. The elements discussed in this study unit are not specific to film, and most of them are applicable to your reading of written texts as well. Literary elements: story and characters All stories have beginnings, middle (where the climatic event occurs) and endings, regardless of the mediums of their presentations. However, there are times when the events are not presented in sequential order, and this disruption of the order of events affects our responses to the story. In our approach to analysing fiction, it is important for us to first differentiate the plot from the story, regardless of the story s genre and medium. Story is a chronological sequence of events that take place (what the text/film is about). Plot is the manner that these events relate to each other, and the effects that these have on our comprehension of the story (what happens). Narrative refers to the manner that plot and story are to take place, such that they fulfil the author s intention (how it happens). The author may choose to re-frame chronological SU2-4

47 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film sequence in the narrative to create different effects when important information is revealed, and of course, to achieve his or her objectives. Watch You should now watch My Neighbour Totoro (dir. Hayao Miyazaki 1988) Activity 1 1. What is the story of My Neighbour Totoro? 2. What is the plot of My Neighbour Totoro? 3. In My Neighbour Totoro, the plot is chronological, and the narrative is sequential. What is the effect of employing a chronological narrative in My Neighbour Totoro? Types of character The narrative and plot of any story is always driven by the characters and their interactions with each other. Characterisation, which refers to the way characters are constructed, is therefore important to the narrative design of the text and/or film. Characters take on traits familiar to us, and share motivations similar to ours, even if they are characters from non-realist fiction. A non-realist fiction is a piece of work which makes use of the incorporation of different realities and extraordinary (and at times supernatural) events as its setting/premise. An example would be the universe of superheroes we come across in comics and superhero movies we have seen lately. The superheroes gain superhuman powers from extraordinary scientific experiments, or by virtue of their mythical origins. Yet, they possess human SU2-5

48 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film qualities, morals and values, and face the same dilemmas as we do. This realistic portrayal of characters, even in non-realistic settings is what help us readers and/or viewers to relate to the stories. You will learn more about the similarities between the fictional world of the story and the reader s real world in Study Unit 3 and 5. So while the events in My Neighbour Totoro are not exactly similar to events that occur in the world we live in, the characters are constructed realistically, as they speak and behave as we do in real life. The girls exhibit the same curiosity as most small children do, and their lack of inhibition mirrors that of real children. Protagonist is the main character. She/he develops as the story progresses, is the person who is central to the plot s development. The protagonist s choices and actions often affect events that occur. Antagonist is the main opposing character, who is often the one in conflict with the protagonist, and whom the protagonist must prevail over. The antagonist does not have to be a villain she/he may challenge the protagonist, end even other characters, into actions that affect the plot s development without being the bad guy. Round character is a character who is complex, and who develops or changes as the story progresses. A round character s motivations and behaviour are fully manifested by the writer and thus, his or her actions often have consequences and affect events that occur. Flat character is a character who is usually left under-developed. He or she is considered as passive and normally does not change the plot significantly. An example of a flat character in My Neighbour Totoro would be Kanta s aunt. We see in the film that she is a kind old lady who allows Satsuki to use the telephone, and who comments to Kanta that Satsuki is a nice girl. She plays the character of the kind elderly but her actions do not alter the plot. While flat characters may sometimes be considered to be dull or unimportant, they do serve a purpose in the narrative. A story with too many complex characters is hard to follow, and flat characters are there to balance out our perceptions of the world of the story. SU2-6

49 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Activity 2 Is there an obvious antagonist in My Neighbour Totoro? Is it necessary to always have an antagonist in a story? Film devices The following cinematic elements are useful in the analysis of films as texts since films privilege the use of images, actions, and sounds to tell a story. The opening scene or sequence is important as it sets the tone for the film. Much like the introduction in a story or an essay, the opening scene prepares its audience for the film s main message. In My Neighbour Totoro, the opening song prepares its audience for the adventure that awaits the little girl on the screen. The presence of flora and fauna while the little girl is marching already tells us that nature is an important element in the story we are about to see. True enough, we are immediately introduced to the satoyama when the song comes to an end: SU2-7

50 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Figure 2.1 Paddy fields in the Japanese countryside (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) This focus on the landscape recurs in the rest of the film when the landscape, rather than humans, is the main focus of the scene. Figure 2.2 view from Kanta s house Figure 2.3 Thunderstorm (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) The opening sequence thus informs its audience that nature is a significant element, and the relationship between man and nature is an important theme. A theme in any writing SU2-8

51 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film refers to its dominant idea which the writer explores in depth through his or her work. Themes can be based upon philosophy, politics, culture, and society, to name a few. Most literary works deal with more than one theme. This is because of the complexities that most artistic creations contain. But it is not to say that the various thematic strands in a work are separate and unrelated. In most instances, a work is meaningful when it is structured around its thematic issues, and the relationships between its various themes are demonstrated by the writer and/or director. In Study Unit 1, we learned what metaphors and symbols are, and how they are used to convey the writer s messages. Likewise, metaphors and symbols are used in film to reinforce the film s larger message(s). These elements establish the film s themes when they are repeated in significant ways. Of course, the metaphors and symbols used in films are presented visually. An example of a metaphor employed in My Neighbour Totoro is the tree tunnel. We notice that there is a tree tunnel which leads to the Kusakabe s house, and that there is a narrower tree tunnel from the house s backyard to Totoro s clearing. Figure 2.4 Satsuki is crawling through the tree tunnel in order to get to Totoro s clearing (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) SU2-9

52 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Tunnels are usually associated with connections and re-births, and in the film, they serve as metaphors for the connection shared by the girls and the totoros. This association of tunnels and connection is reinforced whenever we see the girls run through the tree tunnels and are introduced to different aspects of nature, and to the giant Totoro. We can say that the camera serves the function of the narrator in a written text. In the case of film, the camera angle represents the point of view (camera eye). Much like how we identify who is the narrator of a written story, we need to identify from which point of view the story is being told when we watch a film. Identifying the point of view allows us to understand why the shot is significant, to receive the message intended, and identify the emotions we are meant to empathise with. A shot viewed from the character s point of view is also known as a subjective shot we see what the character sees. An objective shot would show a scene that is seen from a third-person point of view. For example, this shot of Totoro is viewed from Satsuki s point of view. She is hunched under her umbrella and all she can see is Totoro s feet. This shot allows us to feel the same uncertainty as Satsuki does. Figure 2.5 Totoro approaches the girls at the bus stop (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) SU2-10

53 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film This shot of Totoro gifting the girls with a packet of acorns is viewed from a third-person or objective point of view. This allows us to see all of the characters expressions during their Figure 2.6 Totoro gifts the girls a packet of acorns interaction. (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) The first films were silent, and it was only in the late 1920s that films began to have sounds and dialogues. Dialogue is an important aspect in our discussion of literary texts, and even more so in films. Dialogue is the most direct manner for dramatic actions and character interactions to emerge. We are familiar with spoken dialogue between characters as their speeches often mimic our natural conversations, especially in realistic fiction. However, the conversations between the girls and Totoro require viewers to read into their contexts, and the characters body language and utterances, in order for viewers to understand what has been communicated. In Study Unit 1, we learned that the relationship between signifier and its signified is often arbitrary, and relational (see SU 1, page 3), and this arbitrary relationship is exemplified in Mei s first encounter with the giant totoro: SU2-11

54 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Figure 2.7 Mei s first encounter with Totoro (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) Figure 2.8 Mei imitating Totoro s roar (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) A huge furry animal baring his teeth and letting out a roar would most likely be interpreted as a frightening and threatening gesture. However, Mei s reactions do not fit into how we think frightened children would react. If we recall the earlier part of the movie, we will remember that Mei has already been told by Granny and her father that there are no ghosts and there is nothing for her to be afraid of earlier in the film, which explains why she is not terrified of the totoros. It is also easy for viewers to understand what has been exchanged between Mei and Totoro even though they are not communicating with a language familiar to us. It is our realisation that she is mimicking Totoro s roar that allows us to see that they are communicating in a language which they both understand. In short, we are able to understand Mei s intentions, and what has been exchanged because we have already learned to assign values to symbolic signs when we learned how to read patterns and the ways to communicate. Activity 3 How do the characters in My Neighbour Totoro communicate with each other, and with nature? SU2-12

55 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Other than dialogues, sounds (and especially music) affect our mood when we watch a film. In fact, sounds tell more than images can in films. Take for example, the famous movie, Jaws. We remember the riveting theme much more than the film itself, and this particular sound arrangement has become synonymous to sharks in the water, or at the very least, of impending danger. In My Neighbour Totoro, the sounds allow us to feel the sense of enchantment the girls feel whenever they come into contact with the totoros. In addition, the lack of ominous music in any of the scenes depicting her disappearance allows the readers to know that Mei will not come to any harm. Mise-en-scene refers to the composition of a scene: from settings to lighting, costumes to actors actions, In other words, it refers to everything that appears on the screen that is not a result of editing. In a scene, every object in the setting, every colour, every word and every action is included intentionally and they all come together to convey information pertinent to the film s message(s). Take for example, this scene from My Neighbour Totoro: SU2-13

56 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Figure 2.9 Granny sharing her vegetables with the girls (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) The girls are in their summer dresses and sandals, the sun is shining brightly (seen from the clear blue sky, white clouds, the vibrant colours of the fruit and vegetable, and shadows cast on the characters and the land), Granny is wearing her usual outfit, and the landscape is of the same green and lush foliage. All of these elements come together to inform the audience that it is summer time and the girls have already settled into the village, and they are close to Granny. SU2-14

57 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Activity 4 In the earlier shot, Mei looks pensive while Satsuki is grinning. Recall the conversation the girls had with Granny. What does this scene reveal about the land and the people living on it? What else about the girls do we learn from this? Remember, all of these methods and processes of inquiry are applicable to the texts you will read in the rest of the course, and certainly useful whenever you read or watch anything. SU2-15

58 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Chapter 2: Cultural Symbols in My Neighbour Totoro In this section, we will take a closer look at the issues explored in My Neighbour Totoro: The idyllic, nature and man Cultural myths and beliefs Nature and man We have discussed briefly how nature is an important element earlier in this study unit. In My Neighbour Totoro, nature is more than a landscape or setting for the girls adventures to take place in; nature, specifically the satoyama, is also a character in the story. In fact, much of the film focuses on how man and nature can co-exist in a satoyama. Figure 2.10 Torii (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) Figure 2.11 The Kusakabes paying their respects to the camphor tree (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) The focus on the satoyama, and life in a countryside largely untouched by technology and modernisation is reminiscent of the idyll. The idyll refers to a poem or prose which describes charming and rustic scenes, and simplistic countryside lifestyles. The most common example of the idyll can be found in British literature. The tranquil and almost timeless English countryside is often used by authors to recall a time when life was simple and unaffected by the effects of modernisation and industrialisation. This representation SU2-16

59 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film of the tranquil and charming countryside is particularly useful in the authors discussions of larger ideas such as national identity, social issues, and even politics. Indeed, the use of the countryside in the discussion of socio-cultural issues is prevalent in films and literature, and it is certainly not exclusive to British literature. Take for example, the use of the kampong in our very own national narrative and literature is an example of how the idyll is used in other literary works. The recurring evocation of a kampong spirit alongside images of farmers working the land, and happy residents from various kampongs, is often used to engage readers and/or viewers in a discussion about Singapore s past, and the people s struggle with national identity in a now cosmopolitan city. Activity 5 How is rural life represented in Totoro? How does the representation of rural Japan reinforce the film s larger themes? With this definition of the idyll, we can consider My Neighbour Totoro to be responding to the tradition of the idyll. In My Neighbour Totoro, the countryside is used in the attempt to reclaim traditions, and a homeland that has been devastated by events such as war, modernisation, and urbanisation. In the film, we see that there is no clear distancing of man from nature: the villagers in late 1950s Japan have not yet experienced the effects of advanced technology and rapid urbanisation, and thus share a meaningful relationship with nature as they work on the land without exploiting the environment. Viewers are reminded of this organic relationship by Kusakabe when he tells his children that there was a time when trees and people were friends. Much of the relationship between man and nature is portrayed through Mei s interactions with the totoros. In Study Unit 1, we were introduced to personification and its use in literary writing. In My Neighbour Totoro, Nature is personified as a totoro, and this personification of Nature allows viewers SU2-17

60 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film to better grasp the idea of man and Nature sharing a meaningful relationship. We find that the totoros behaviours are rather similar to Mei s, and this observation allows us to make the connection between Nature, man, and the innocence and mutual respect that characterises the ideal relationship between man and nature. Cultural myths and beliefs In the film, we see Satsuki and Mei using stories they have read to make sense of their initial interactions with the soot sprites and totoros. The girls return to familiar stories to understand what they have seen reflects our own use of myths to understand our world. After all, myths and folklores are products of our ancestors (much more) intuitive relationship with the land they live on, and these stories offer us with ways of seeing our world. Myths are also one of the first sources of history. We learn about our past, our cultures and beliefs from tales about extraordinary figures and incidents, with most myths being imbued with religious and cultural meanings. One of the most common myths we learn regardless of our cultural beliefs is the creation myth. Creation myths explain how the world came to exist, and it is through these creation myths that we learn to acquire ways of questioning in our attempts to understand the world. Moreover, there are often some sort of moral values or lessons to be learned in these myths. Myths then, are more than methods for us to remember our history and understand our world but also, reminders of how to conduct ourselves. Of course, the myths referenced in My Neighbour Totoro are culturallyspecific to its audience. The use of Japanese myths allow its viewers to engage more personally with the film. The constant reminder that humans and nature were friends, and that the sentient forest spirits only reveal themselves to the very young reflects a looking back to the past, of a simpler time before urbanisation and the resultant loss of connection to nature. Cultural traditions and identities are therefore evoked, intensifying the sense of belonging to the country and to the land. Miyazaki s Japanese audience is, at every turn, reminded of their identity and their traditions beliefs. The prominent references to various symbols and practices observed by the characters allow us to identify Shintoism as that which informs the characters behaviours and SU2-18

61 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film world-views. Shintō is a set of indigenous religious beliefs in Japan, in which people worship deities of heaven, earth, mountains, rocks, and trees, to name a few. Its animistic philosophy reflects the symbiotic relationship humans share with nature. Animism is the belief that natural objects, natural phenomena, and the universe itself possess souls and that it is alive. Figure 2.12 Satsuki asking for permission to share the shelter Figure 2.13 Mei finding statues of forest guardians (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) (Source: My Neighbour Totoro, dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 1988) The shrines of Ojizou sama, and shrines to forest guardians are part of the satoyama, and of the Japanese cultural landscape. The recurring images of shrine and statues in the film are cues to the audience that gods and spirits are also characters in the film s narrative, and that they are watching over the villagers, particularly, the children. These religious symbols constantly remind the characters and viewers of their organic relationship with the land they live on. More importantly, these recurring references to myths and extraordinary figures encourage viewers to go beyond the limits of the text and/or film. In fact, fans of My Neighbour Totoro have come together in a series of sustained efforts to conserve the Sayama Hills and its surrounding area. While it is not necessary for all films or literary works to affect its audience and effect tangible changes, My Neighbour Totoro s ability to inspire its viewers into action certainly exemplifies how signs and cultural symbols are used to communicate effectively across mediums. SU2-19

62 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Read You should now read: Totoro Forest National Fund SU2-20

63 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film Summary In this study unit, we learned how various stylistic features and elements commonly used in film and literature influence meaning-making. We have also used features such as themes, dialogue, and mise-en-scene to analyse My Neighbour Totoro. You should now proceed to complete Pre-Course Quiz SU2 in Canvas. SU2-21

64 Signs and Cultural Symbols in Film SU2-22

65 Study Unit The Graphic Novel 3

66 The Graphic Novel Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Identify the structural elements of a graphic novel 2. Explain how a graphic novel communicates its message/s 3. Consider the role of the reader/viewer in the reading process SU3-2

67 The Graphic Novel Overview In this study unit, we will examine the structure of a graphic novel and think about how the different elements of a graphic text interact with the reader so as to generate meaningful communication and transmit ideas. SU3-3

68 The Graphic Novel Chapter 1: What is a Graphic Novel? A graphic novel, simply speaking, can be defined as a story that is told through the use of sequential art (art arranged in a deliberate sequence). In this way, a graphic novel is similar to comic periodicals. However, graphic novels usually have more complex plots and are frequently standalone works. It is important to note that the term graphic novel does not describe a genre of texts. Like comics, it is a medium through which a story or idea can be told or expressed. As such, graphic novels can fall into different genres, for example, non-fiction, fiction, fantasy, history, romance, or even straddle different categories. Some examples of graphic novels are A Contract with God and Other Tenement Stories (1978), which tells of life in a tenement in New York City, Maus (1980), which discusses the Holocaust, Blankets (2003), a bildungsroman1, and the book you will be reading, The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye (2015). As you can see from the examples, the genres, topics and themes a graphic novel deals with can be very varied. Activity 1 Think of one comic strip or graphic novel you have read and compare it to a film or a novel. How is the presentation of the story different? 1 A bildungsroman is a narrative about a person s formative years, a coming-of-age story. SU3-4

69 The Graphic Novel Activity 2 Watch this video that discusses the difficulty of defining comics: How would you define comics? Explain your stand. Understanding the Lexicon A graphic novel can be considered a combination of many elements that a reader would already be familiar with, which includes narrative, plot, characters, images and illustrations, words, verisimilitude, and its similarity to film. But it is also a unique medium whose features and characteristics stand apart from other similar mediums. The sections below help you understand fundamental terms and concepts related to the graphic novel, which will be essential to any discussion and analysis of such texts. The Icon 2 : Illustrations and Images Within the world of comics, the icon is any image or illustration that represents a person, a place, a thing, an emotion, or an idea (McCloud, 1993). This may sound straightforward but the concept is rather complex because there are different categories of icons and different levels of abstraction, both of which affect reader engagement. Among the many categories of icons, those you might be more familiar with include symbols like or. There are also other icons that we use on a daily basis, such as mathematical symbols or the alphabet, i.e., the language we use to communicate. Then there are also other icons that we commonly call pictures. These usually resemble the objects or persons they are supposed to represent. The major differences between the first 2 Bear in mind that the icon discussed in this unit is different from the iconic sign explained in Study Unit 1. SU3-5

70 The Graphic Novel two categories of icons and the last category lie in the level of abstraction and the fluidity of meaning. Both symbols and the language we use are abstract: symbols are used to represent ideas and concepts that are frequently intangible, and language is a code that communicates based on a shared understanding of what the code stands for. In both these cases, meaning is fixed and stable and successful communication is based off shared knowledge within a community. Pictorial icons, however, possess varying degrees of likenesses to real-life or the objects and persons they represent. How stable and defined the meaning of any pictorial icon will depend on how much the icon differs from a real-life appearance. In general, the more detailed and lifelike an image is, the more stable its meaning and representation becomes. Correspondingly, the more simplistic an image is, the more fluid and general its meaning will be. Of all the different icons available to us, the pictorial icon is the most commonly used icon in graphic novels. Usually, we differentiate between pictorial icons and illustrations by the way they communicate. Icons tend to function like single units, for example, emoji, and can be transposed onto a variety of backgrounds and situations. Illustrations, on the other hand, are usually more complex, and includes the icon in its frame. Line, Shape and Colour Pictorial icons can express ideas, depict emotional states, show the passing of time, demonstrate cause and effect, and communicate psychological states, among a variety of other effects. According to McCloud (1993), these effects are primarily communicated through line, shape and colour. Images and illustrations are either presented in black and white, or in colour. If illustrations are in black and white, the illustrator becomes more dependent on effects like the thickness of lines, smoothness and roughness of edges, shapes and figures, angular or rounded shapes, shading, stylised images, and the proportions of the picture in relation to SU3-6

71 The Graphic Novel the panel/s in order to convey an idea, feeling, mental state, or even sensual or physical conditions. Decisions regarding the use of colour in comics are usually dominated by economics and technology. As such, the bulk of comics today are created using only the primary colours or a limited mix of them. When comics are presented in colour, they become visually arresting and can easily create a distinctive and memorable image for characters. For example, think of comic characters like Batman, Superman, and The Hulk. The colours associated with them are distinctive and are seen as part of their identity. Moreover, colours add life to a character such that the same character drawn in black and white and drawn in colour elicit different responses from the reader. Panels and Gutters Panels are the lines that enclose a picture and designate the figure/s, object/s, and setting/s within that particular panel as a group that needs to be read or understood together. Panels are usually square or rectangular in shape but this is by no means restrictive. There are many comics which feature odd-shaped panels or use the whole page or pages as panels, giving rise to different visual and narrative effects. The spaces that exists between panels are known as gutters. These designate the breaks in the image-narrative that the reader will need to put together in a sense, erase in order to join the panels into a coherent narrative that makes sense. The act of joining all these seemingly unconnected frames is called closure and is where reader-participation is paramount. Words In a graphic novel, word and image come together in a variety of ways in order to tell the story. Words can be used to signal a time, place, explain a situation, introduce characters, or provide background information. These include phrases or sentences that are usually found at the top corner of a panel. Some examples include, Yesterday afternoon or Meanwhile, or His nemesis finally appears. SU3-7

72 The Graphic Novel Words are also used in word balloons in panels. This gives the reader access to characters mental or emotional states, or fleshes out a scene for the reader with speech. Another way words are used are as part of a picture. You may, for example, recognise a tombstone not only by its shape but because of the letters R.I.P on it. Sound is also indicated in a graphic novel by onomatopoeic words that are accompanied by images or lines. Examples include, Clak, clak, Aww, Cough! Cough! These onomatopoeic words derive meaning not only because they are accompanied by images but also because they work with a common understanding of conventions between the creator of the work and the reader. The relationship between words and images is also exploited to create coherence or disjuncture in the reception and hence meaning of the message. McCloud (1993) lists a number of word-picture combinations: In picture specific combinations, words work with the pictures to illustrate a point but do not add to the message, for example, adding a soundtrack to the action shown. They can also amplify or add to what may be a less detailed panel, which is an additive combination. In a word-specific combination, words give more information than the picture in the same panel and here, the reader would depend more on the words than the picture to give meaning. Words can also act like pictures. This is called the montage and it describes words that are stylised and incorporated directly into the image, taking on a pictorial dimension like this word,, which exemplifies the word through its font type. But words and pictures can also walk divergent paths. In parallel combinations, the words and pictures seem to co-exist independently on each other and the reader needs to figure out the connection between them. The most common type of combination, though, is the inter-dependent combination where words and pictures sing the same tune and convey an idea or message that would be incomplete if either the words or picture were missing. SU3-8

73 The Graphic Novel Narrative and Plot All stories have a plot. For example, a well-known, even clichéd, plot would be that exemplified by films or books in the romance genre: boy meets girl, they encounter some difficulties, they surmount said difficulties, and they live happily ever after. Plots like these are replicated in many different narratives that provide the distinct and varied circumstances in which the plot may play out. Narrative is the overarching structure of the ways that a story and plot unfold for the reader. It is how the story is articulated that drives a reader s continued engagement. A good story narrated terribly would not sustain a reader s attention as well as a tale that may be more straightforward but is recounted in an appealing manner. In a graphic novel, narrative and plot are just as important as any other element as they organise and present images, words, sounds, sequence of events, characters in a meaningful manner for the reader. How and when an image is shown within a narrative will determine how readers absorb information, how immersed in or detached from certain characters or the story a reader can be, and how the reader can be influenced to feel a certain way or to arrive at specific conclusions. The concept of immersion and detachment is also related to the level of verisimilitude present in the narrative. This is based on the similarities that connect the real world of the reader with the fictional world of the narrative (read more about verisimilitude in Study Unit 5). Verisimilitude is important because it alerts the reader to the proximities that exist between life and art, prompting the reader to identify with fictional characters and situations, and engage with issues featured within the narrative. SU3-9

74 The Graphic Novel Chapter 2: Reading the Text Reading a graphic text is not as straightforward as you might think. Although many of us do not usually have problems reading or understanding comics, the literacies involved in such a reading are rather complex. You need to, for instance, know in which direction you should read, understand graphic conventions, appreciate the relationship between the words and images, and maintain coherence across discrete, disconnected and perhaps seemingly unconnected pictures. Most readers, including you, perform these acts intuitively and unconsciously or subconsciously but an explication of the reading process and what it entails is necessary if we wish to further understand how we read. Closure In the section on panels and gutters, it was stated that the act of closure is important because it is what maintains coherence between panels. The gutters that exist in a graphic novel necessitates this performance of closure as they separate each panel, forcing the reader to connect one panel to another in order to create a meaningful story within the text. The effectiveness of closure depends primarily on the prior knowledge of the reader, familiarity of the context, the reader s imagination, and the need for wholeness in readers the need for things to make sense when considered together. Thus, most readers can, for example, automatically recall the word Coke if you show them an incomplete picture of a Coke bottle with the name partially obscured. They can also recognise a face even if it is not drawn in a realistic manner, like the many emoticons we use on a daily basis, enabling them to recognise emotions in these cartoon faces even though they do not resemble real people. Readers can also predict actions, guess at motivations, and expect what may come next by drawing on prior experience. SU3-10

75 The Graphic Novel Imagine a figure kicking a football in the first panel, followed by a broken window in the next panel. What do you think happened? You are most likely to think that the window was broken by the football that was kicked in the wrong direction or too hard. The reader becomes a collaborator in any text, a willing participant who fills in the gaps created in the text. This act of closure happens in any text you read, not just graphic novels. Writers and artists create suspense, play with readers expectations or fulfil readers desires by both fulfilling and going against this need for closure in the reader. But this can only be done effectively if the creator of the text shares common knowledge with the reader and assumes, correctly, what the reader may think, feel and desire. Masking Masking works on a reader s need to identify with the world around him/her. Readers can extend and/or project their identities outwards into inanimate things and see these objects as part of themselves. If we think of cartoons and drawings as inanimate objects that readers extend their identities towards, we can begin to understand how reader/ viewer-identification can happen, and why readers feel invested in the plot and narrative, or the lives of characters that may seem, on the surface, totally unrelated to them. Viewer-identification happens when something is removed from the realm of the real. Imagine looking at a photograph of someone. Can you completely identify with the person you see? Can you say, This person represents me? It is more difficult to extend your identity to someone else with an established identity. This is why you are all called individuals separate and defined beings. The person in the photograph has a stable identity in the real world in which you exist hence you cannot see yourself in him or her that readily. With a cartoon character, on the other hand, an icon that is simplified and bears little resemblance to anyone you know or who exists in real-life, it is easier to mask yourself within it. This accounts for the more realistic settings, and less realistic characters we see in comics in general. The world of the text exists but the reader is free to inhabit the character SU3-11

76 The Graphic Novel in order to experience the created world of the text more intensely. This is how the viewer becomes emotionally and mentally involved in a story. By amplifying only certain details in a pictorial icon and simplifying all others, an illustrator is stripping the image down to its essential meaning (McCloud 1993). This means that the image becomes part of the world of ideas you entertain within your head rather than something in the world of sensory experience. This is how a viewer can inhabit the character easily. In fact, we can say that the less realistic a pictorial icon looks, the more it can aspire to universality, allowing more readers to identify with it. The meaning of a pictorial icon is emphasised by deemphasising its physical traits and hence established, unique identity. In other words, icons are easy to understand because they highlight general characteristics and omit complexities that make each person unique. Activity 3 Read this article from The Guardian that discusses the use of emoji: How do you think the concept of masking applies to their use? Transitions Transitions are part of the storytelling techniques creators of graphic novels use. These transitions explain how pictures relate and how the organisation of pictures are done. They are integral to how readers perform the act of closure as readers imagine and decode these transitions in way that is familiar to how they apprehend time and space in real life. McCloud (1993) contends that the categories of transitions are inexact but in general, transitions fall into the following categories. SU3-12

77 The Graphic Novel Moment-to-Moment transitions: These panels show something happening from one moment to the next. These sorts of transitions are far fewer than other transitions because the need for each moment in a story to be illustrated is usually unnecessary. These sequences also need little closure, i.e., less viewer-participation. Action-to-Action transitions are the most common type of transitions. These show the progress of an action over several panels. The action is usually performed by a single subject. Subject-to-Subject transitions moves the reader from one subject to another within a single idea or scene. Reader involvement is needed to connect the panels in a meaningful manner. Scene-to-Scene transitions transport readers through time and space in other to juxtapose different scenes or make the readers establish links between them. Here, reader involvement is high because the connection between different panels may not always be explicitly stated. Aspect-to-Aspect transitions acts like a wandering eye that settles on disparate things or places and shares what it sees with the reader. These types of transitions are usually used to create mood, establish setting, or put across an idea. The last type of transition is the non-sequitur which does not offer any logical relationship between panels at all. Here, the reader will have to figure out how and why the panels connect (if they do at all). SU3-13

78 The Graphic Novel Figure 3.1 Transitions in Graphic Novels (Source: Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art by S. McCloud, p. 74) SU3-14