ОБУЧЕНИЕ ИНДИВИДУАЛЬНОМУ ЧТЕНИЮ

Transcription

1 Министерство образования Российской Федерации Архангельский государственный технический университет О.Б. БЕССЕРТ ОБУЧЕНИЕ ИНДИВИДУАЛЬНОМУ ЧТЕНИЮ Учебное пособие Архангельск 2004

2 Рассмотрены и рекомендованы к изданию кафедрой иностранных языков Архангельского государственного технического университета 9 марта 2004 г. Рецензенты: Т.А. КЛЕПИКОВА, доц., канд. филол. наук; Дж. Слэйд, проф. УДК /02=20 ББК81.2 Англ-9 Б 53 Бессерт О.Б. Обучение индивидуальному чтению: Учебное пособие. - Архангельск: Изд-во Арханг. гос. техн. ун-та, с. Учебное пособие по обучению индивидуальному чтению на английском языке подготовлено с использованием современных материалов зарубежной прессы и произведений английских и американских авторов. Отобранные аутентичные материалы для чтения и комплекс упражнений к ним способствуют формированию навыков и умений индивидуального чтения. Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов, изучающих английский язык в качестве второй специальности, а также для широкого круга лиц, изучающих английский язык. Пособие может быть рекомендовано как для занятий под руководством преподавателя, так и для самостоятельного изучения. ISBN Архангельский государственный технический университет, 2004

3 CONTENTS Unit!. STRUCTURE 9 RECOGNIZING WORD STRUCTURE 9 FINDING ROOT WORDS 11 ADDING PREFIXES TO ROOT WORDS 13 NEGATIVE PREFIXES 15 SOME OTHER PREFIXES 17 ADDING SUFFIXES TO ROOT WORDS 19 COMPOUNDS 22 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 25 CHOOSING THE RIGHT MEANING 28 MAKING DEFINITIONS FIT 31 Unit 2. CENTRAL IDEA 33 WHAT IS IT ABOUT? 33 WHAT IS CENTRAL IDEA? 34 TOPICS AND CENTRAL IDEAS 36 SORTING IDEAS 39 PARAGRAPHS AS SIGNALS: CHANGES IN TDEA 42 PARAGRAPHS AS SIGNALS: CHANGES IN ACTION 44 PARAGRAPHS AS SIGNALS: CHANGES IN TIME AND PLACE 47 CENTRAL IDEA IN AN ARTICLE 49 RELATIONSHIPS 53 THINKING PATTERNS 53 CAUSE-EFFECT 53 COMPARISON-CONTRAST 58 SIMPLE LISTING 62 CLUE WORDS 64 COMBINED RELATIONSHIPS 65 JUDGEMENTS 68 JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS 68 SORTING OUT CONCLUSIONS 70 RECOGNIZING STEREOTYPES 76 SITUATION STEREOTYPES 78 FACTS AND OPINIONS 82 VALID OPINIONS 83 MAKING JUDGEMENTS 86 Vnit3. FLEXIBILITY 89 REASONS FOR READING 89 DIFFERENT WAYS OF READING 90 SKIMMING FOR CERTAIN INFORMATION 92 SKIMMING PARAGRAPHS FOR DETAILS 93 SKIMMING FOR A GENERAL IDEA 95 READING WITH FLEXIBILITY 97 SETTING PURPOSE 98 MAKING A SURVEY TO SET PURPOSE 102

4 "Extensive Reading Skills" by Olga Bessert is a unique and extremely useful book for advanced students of English. This collection of exercises will help students to think more clearly as they read a variety of English texts, and to write more clearly in their own essays. Rather than read word by word, students learn to look for the overall structure of the text, and to identify the central idea. The student can thus read more quickly, and with greater comprehension. In addition, the student learns to follow the progression of ideas in a text, by looking for key words and phrases. The student therefore reads with both growing comprehension, keener sense of judgment. As the student learns to read more perceptively, he also learns to write with greater skill. This excellent book, written by a professional with extensive experience, should be required reading for every university student of English. Dr. John Slade Ph D, 1974, Writing and Literature Stanford University, California, USA Professor of English Bodo Graduate School of English Bodo, Norway

5 МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ Целью обучения индивидуальному чтению студентов, изучающих английский язык в качестве второй специальности, является умение читать про себя (разными видами чтения) незнакомый аутентичный текст без посторонней помощи, опираясь на предусмотренный Программой лексический, фонетический и грамматический материал, в нужном темпе, с правильным пониманием и для многих целей. Индивидуальное чтение как вид чтения представляет собой комплекс навыков и умений, которыми должны владеть обучаемые для извлечения информации с той или иной степенью и глубиной точности понимания. Индивидуальное чтение может быть охарактеризовано как гибкое чтение про себя (беглое или в замедленном темпе), коммуникативное чтение, предполагающее самостоятельный выбор студентом степени проникновения в читаемое. Это «собственно» чтение, для которого характерны процессы синтеза; организационно этому виду чтения соответствует самостоятельное, внеаудиторное, дополнительное чтение. При этом индивидуализация реализуется, с одной стороны, в организации процесса обучения (каждый обучающийся читает свой индивидуальный текст или произведение), а с другой стороны - в ориентации модели обучения на личностные особенности студентов, использование их индивидуальных учебных стратегий в чтении. Методика обучения индивидуальному чтению студентов, изучающих английский язык, должна обеспечивать формирование навыков и умений индивидуального чтения, т.е. учить студентов самостоятельно выбирать тот набор навыков и умений, который характерен для конкретного вида чтения и который позволяет понимать тип и целевое назначение текстов, ориентироваться в тексте в соответствии с коммуникативной задачей, извлекать информацию на разном уровне. Рассматривая индивидуальное чтение как коммуникативный вид чтения, «собственно» чтение, мы говорим о необходимости подготовительного этапа, этапа формирования навыков и умений индивидуального чтения, для студентов, изучающих английский язык в качестве второй специальности. Таким образом, мы выделяем два этапа обучения индивидуальному чтению аутентичных материалов: 1) подготовительный этап, включающий три стадии: а) формирование речевых навыков чтения;

6 б) формирование коммуникативных умений чтения, связанных с пониманием основного содержания, главной идеи текста, с пониманием содержания на уровне смысла; в) формирование коммуникативных умений чтения, связанных с гибкостью чтения, умением переключаться с одного вида чтения на другой. 2) этап «собственно» индивидуального чтения, когда студенты переходят к чтению аутентичных материалов, используя: а) руководство по эффективному использованию учебных умений индивидуального чтения; б) инструкций по самостоятельной работе над текстом для индивидуального чтения; в) схему для работы с текстом для индивидуального чтения. Подготовительный этап представляет собой целенаправленное обучение, которое предполагает выполнение комплекса упражнений, представленных в предлагаемом пособии, в результате чего у студентов формируются коммуникативные и учебные умения, составляющие «собственно» чтение. Подготовительный этап рассчитан на 10 недель обучения индивидуальному чтению с начала седьмого семестра. Обучение проходит в рамках времени, рекомендованного Программой на контроль самостоятельной работы студентов (один час на одного студента в семестр). Обучение на подготовительном этапе проходит по предлагаемому пособию по обучению индивидуальному чтению. Аутентичные материалы для чтения, включенные в пособие, адаптированы: сокращены; часть текстов разделена на части, абзацы; в текстах выделены незнакомые слова, препятствующие пониманию; выделенные слова переведены или снабжены комментарием. Учебное пособие представляет собой рабочую тетрадь, студенты выполняют задания, выбирая правильные ответы, отвечая на вопросы, в самом учебном пособии. Материалы для обучения на подготовительном этапе состоят из трех модулей. 1 модуль нацелен на формирование навыков, связанных с пониманием языкового материала читаемого: навыков распознавания лексико-грамматических явлений (догадаться о новом значении слова; догадаться о значении однокоренного слова; однокоренного слова,

7 имеющего префикс(ы); сложного слова; распознавать структуру слова, предложения), умений работы со словарем. На работу по 1 модулю студентам отводится две недели, студенты выполняют задания самостоятельно, дома. Обсуждение, проверка выполненных заданий проходит в аудитории с учителем. 2 модуль направлен на формирование комплекса коммуникативных умений по извлечению основной информации, главной идеи текста, умений, связанных с пониманием логико-композиционных связей текста разных типов: причинно-следственных связей, сравнительноконтрастивных отношений, расположения во временном порядке следования; умений интерпретировать содержание. Этап понимания содержания на уровне значения. Модуль 2 также нацелен на формирование умений делать выводы, оценить, осмыслить информацию, содержащуюся в тексте; вычленять факты и умозаключения; понимать имплицитное содержание; умений, связанных с пониманием содержания на уровне смысла. Этап присвоения информации. На работу по модулю 2 студентам отводится пять недель, студенты выполняют задания самостоятельно. Обсуждение, проверка выполненных заданий проходит в аудитории с учителем. 3 модуль ориентирован на формирование коммуникативных умений гибкого чтения, умений переключаться с одного вида чтения на другой; умений избирательно пользоваться разными видами коммуникативного чтения; использовать просмотровое чтение для определения основной мысли текста или поискового чтения для нахождения определенных деталей; умений варьировать скорость чтения в зависимости от коммуникативной задачи; умений прогнозирования темы текста по заголовку, рисунку; с помощью выборочного чтения, исходя из сильных позиций текста (заголовок, начальные и конечные абзацы); умений предвосхищения продолжения читаемого, ориентировки в логикосмысловой структуре текста. На работу по 3 модулю студентам отводится три недели, студенты выполняют задания самостоятельно. Обсуждение, проверка выполненных заданий проходит в аудитории с учителем. Выделение модулей предполагает определенную систему построения материала; простые и комплексные умения, обозначенные в каждом модуле не имеют в виду обучение изолированным умениям, это лишь способ акцентировать внимание на определенных группах умений. Задание студентам дается на неделю. В среднем за неделю студенты читают и выполняют задания, данные на 10 страницах пособия по

8 обучению индивидуальному чтению. Задания выполняются в пособии - рабочей тетради. Контроль выполнения заданий осуществляется на аудиторных занятиях, в группе, в небольших группах (группы по 2-3 человека) или индивидуально во время консультаций преподавателя. На консультации отводится один час в неделю, что соответствует определенному для преподавателя времени на индивидуальную работу со студентами. Студенты могут приходить не на каждую консультацию, так у преподавателя появляется возможность практически осуществлять индивидуализацию процесса обучения. На аудиторных занятиях и консультациях преподаватель также имеет возможность дать дополнительные упражнения, если это необходимо, обращая внимание на недостаточную сформированность тех или иных навыков и умений у студентов. Так, у студентов, изучающих английский язык в качестве второй специальности, необходимо обращать внимание на влияние не только родного языка, но и первого иностранного языка. При таком обучении индивидуальному чтению с осуществлением личностно-ориентированного подхода меняется роль преподавателя. Учащийся с его проблемами и его стилем учебной деятельности находится в центре процесса обучения, а преподаватель в этом случае принимает роль советчика, консультанта, помощника. Следующий этап обучения предполагает переход к «собственно» индивидуальному чтению, которое остается управляемым со стороны преподавателя. Во время этого этапа обучения индивидуальному чтению студенты самостоятельно читают выбранные ими из предложенных преподавателем аутентичные материалы, используют при чтении инструкции и схему. Включение в процесс обучения индивидуальному чтению текстов, содержащих новую информацию, соответствующих познавательным интересам студентов, имеющих личную значимость или эмоциональную привлекательность, а также доступных в содержательном и языковом отношениях способствует формированию лингвистической, лингвострановедческой и интеллектуальной компетенций в чтении, повышает внутреннюю мотивацию, способствует развитию интеллекта студентов.

9 Unitl. STRUCTURE S RECOGNIZING WORD STRUCTURE ACTIVITY 1. Part A. Read the following menu. What is the basic food for the given items? BIG TOP RESTAURANT All sandwiches served with golden French fries, creamy Cole slaw, fresh tomato, and lettuce. The Ringmaster Burger You'll crack the whip for our standard: one-quarter lb. of superfine ground beef, open-grilled to your taste $.85 The Fire-Eater Burger You'll breathe fire after eating on these hot-chili-pepper specials, but it's so-o-o good! $.95 The Midget Burger lust the right size for a smaller appetite, or for the "little 'uns." $.65 The.Strong Man Burger Outstanding! Double everything-for an appetite that's really hearty! $ 1.45 The Three-Ring Special Burger Topped with three delicious, crunchy onion rings, our own extraordinary sauce, and a Big Top flag! $.95 You have probably seen a menu like this one, in which all the foods have fancy names. But all of the items listed here are actually the same basic food with a lot of "trimmings" added. Write the familiar name for this food: Glossary French fries = French fried potatoes - жареный во фритюре картофель Cole slaw п. салат из сырой капусты, моркови, лука lettuce п. plant with crisp leaves used in salads crack the whip coll to use one's power or influence over other people in a vigorous or severe manner; be in control lb abbr. pound(s) (weight). [Latin libra]

10 ground beef = ground meal мясной фарш midget n. extremely small person or thing 'uns = ones crunchy adj. (-ier, -iest) hard and crisp trimmings n. pi. приправа, гарнир ACTIVITY I. Part В. The food isn't the only thing that has "something added," however. Look again at some of the words from the menu: Golden is gold with en added. Superfine is fine with super added. Ringmaster is a combination of ring and master. Read the menu again and fill in the chart with the words from the text. Guess the small cream thing ordinary stand eat ring grill In the sentence below, the three italicized words are all the same familiar word, with different additions: Soon after I filed as claimant on the policy, a claimsman from the insurance company came by to try to talk me into signing a disclaimer. Write the word which is the same in all three italicized words: Even with all of the fancy names on the menu, you were probably able to recognize ordinary hamburger. In a similar way, many of the unfamiliar words you come across in your reading contain within them smaller parts that you may

11 recognize. Even if you don't know the exact meanings of the italicized words above, you still can guess that they all have something to do with the word claim. When you try to figure out the meaning of a word by looking at the different parts that make up the word, you are making use of the STRUCTURE of the word to understand its meaning. Glossary claim требование, претензия claimant лицо, предъявляющее право, претензию или требование; истец disclaimer отказ от права, опровержение insurance company страховая компания ACTIVITY 2. Part A. S FINDING ROOT WORDS Fill in the blanks with the following words (words in the box) FRIENDSHIP BEFRIEND FRIENDLESS UNFRIENDLY FRIENDLINESS A. Because they shared many interests, a close developed between the two classmates. B. He did not know anybody yet, and felt alone and in the strange town. C. Many people are attracted by her and warmth. D. He advanced toward us with a grim, expression on his face. E. We tried to the homeless cat by leaving some food for him on the front porch. 1. What word formed a part of each one you used to complete the sentences?

12 2. How many words had parts added before friend? 3. How many had parts added after friend? 4. Which word had two parts added after friend? When a word is made up oj parts, one way to get the meaning is to take off the added parts and see if what remains is a word you know. Then see if that remaining word might have something to do with the meaning of the sentence. This is what you might have done to find friend. 5. How many of the words used in the sentences on the previous page have meanings related to friend? Friend is the main part of each word. It is the ROOT WORD. The meaning of a root word is always a part of the meaning of any word formed from it. That is why end is not a root in these words. You can add to a root word to form many other words, but you cannot subtract anything from it. ACTIVITY 2. Part В. In the space before each word, write the letter of the root word it contains. Remember that a root word must be related in meaning, not just in the way it is spelled. Root Words: a/ joy Ы trust с/ art d/ act e/ earth distrustful unenjoyable overactive earthiest artistry enjoyment earthward entrusting inactivity reactivate joyously unearthly inartistic actionless untrustworthy joyfulness

13 ^ ADDING PREFIXES TO ROOT WORDS ACTIVITY 3. Part A. Read the following paragraph; pay special attention to the italicized words. One of the hottest "digs"- or scientific excavations - on the North American continent these days is the Koster Site at Kampsville in southern Illinois. What began as an intrastate project - with students and scientists just from Illinois - soon became an interstate project when others from Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and many different states joined the dig. In 1982, junior high school students from Illinois and Wisconsin came to work at the dig. (MacDougall, Genevieve, from "Junior High Archaeologists Dig 10,000 Hours " //Britannica ROUNDTABLE, Vol. 11, No.ll; 1983) 1.What difference do a few letters make in these italicized words? If you had joined the dig at the very beginning, would you have made it an intrastate or an interstate project? 2. The 1982 junior high school group included one student from France, who helped to make the dig an national project. (Write in the correct word part) 3. For each word, circle the word part that has been added: intrastate interstate international Were the word parts you circled above added to the beginning, the middle, or the end of the root words? 4.What do the new parts do to the meaning of the words to which they are added? Complete this sentence: When the word parts are added to a root word, they the meaning of the root word. A word part that can be added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning or to form a new word is called a PREFIX. Words made up of one or more PREFIXES plus a root word are called DERIVATIVES because they are derived from, or formed from, another word.

14 ACTIVITY 3. Part В. Read the sentences and write the derivatives. Follow an example. 1. The students worked to unearth Derivatives skeletons that had been buried in the earth over a thousand years. (w)earth 2. At the Koster Site, students of American history discovered many evidences of man's prehistory in the state of Illinois. 3. According to the evidence so far, the people who inhabited this ancient village did not use materials that we consider precious or semiprecious. 4. The students had to uncover skeletons that had a thick cover of dirt, pottery, and garbage. 5. Although the students are only human, they seemed to work with superhuman effort in order to complete their goals for the summer. 6. They could fill their jugs with drinking water from a nearby spring, but they had to refill the jugs many times during the day. Glossary evidence n. (often foil, by for, of) available facts, circumstances, etc. indicating whether or not a thing is true or valid, inhabit v. (-t-) dwell in; occupy, ancient adj. having existed long, precious adj. of great value or worth. semiprecious adj. (of a gem) less valuable than a precious stone, spring n. place where water, etc., wells up from the earth.

15 NEGATIVE PREFIXES ACTIVITY 4. Part A. Read and compare the sentences: Sally worked with comfort in the blazing hot sun. Sally worked with discomfort in the blazing hot sun. You have already learned that a prefix can make a big difference in the meaning of a word. Suppose you were with Sally at the Kampsville dig. Would you say that you were working with comfort or with discomfort? Circle the appropriate caption above. The same kind of prefix that you find in discomfort appears in the italicized derivatives in the following sentences. Read the following paragraphs paying special attention to the italicized words: Regular recreational facilities for the students are nonexistent at Kampsville. It isn't that the citizens misjudged when they were building the town. It's just that Kampsville is a tiny town which has many of the disadvantages of nonurban life. Its main contact with the outside world is by ferry across the Illinois River. Without the ferry which is free and runs every 20 minutes the town would be unable to provide the students with entertainment. (MacDougall, Genevieve, from "Junior High Archaeologists ROUNDTABLE, Vol. II, No. II; 1983) Dig 10,000 Hours " //Britannica 1. List the four prefixes from the italicized words above: 2. Find the ^italicized word that has such a prefix. Write it here and then circle the prefix: 3. Non-, dis-, mis-, and un- all have similar meanings. Circle the three meanings below that these prefixes could have: with badly all not lack of the same as These four prefixes are called NEGATIVE PREFIXES. In addition to the three meanings you have circled above, negative prefixes can also mean "wrong,"

16 "wrongly, " "bad," "without," or "the opposite of." In other words, they give a "negative" meaning to the root word. During their summer at Koster Site, the students experienced almost no disagreement among themselves or with the directors of the project. Although their headquarters were in the town and the students ate most of their meals there, they did not find it too inconvenient to carry their sandwiches for lunch out to the farm where the dig was located. Each day they looked forward to many uninterrupted hours of digging and were careful that no time was misspent. No task that they had to perform seemed too difficult or impractical. Nor did they think it was at all illogical to be digging about in an ancient garbage dump, or irreverent to be digging up bones in burial areas. In fact, the students considered it an atypical day if they were not digging about in garbage, bones, and pieces of pottery and shell. (MacDougall, Genevieve, from "Junior High Archaeologists Dig 10,000 Hours " //Britannica ROUNDTABLE, Vol. 11, No. II; 1983) 4. Three of the italicized words have prefixes that are actually forms of the prefix in-, as seen in inconvenient. Which spelling of in- is used before the root word that begins with the letter pi (prefix) (root word) 5. Which spelling is used before the root word that begins with the letter I? (prefix) (root word) 6. Which spelling is used before the root word that begins with the letter r? (prefix) (root word) 7. Which prefix is not a form of in-? Write it and its root word here: (prefix) (root word) 8. Atypical means. 9. Find the three unitalicized words that have a negative prefix and write them here:

17 Glossary blazing adj. shining brightly recreation n. process or means of refreshing or entertaining oneself; pleasurable activity exist v. have a place in objective reality; occur; be found tiny adj. (-ier, -iest) very small urban adj. of, living in, or situated in a town or city [Latin urbs city] ferry n. (pi. -ies) boat for esp. regular transport, esp. across water dump n. place or heap for depositing rubbish burial Archaeol. grave or its remains SOME OTHER PREFIXES ACTIVITY 5. Part A. While Salty and her friends were working in the hot sun at Kampsville, what did they find out about themselves and their own interests? Read what they say below. The example sentences following the selection will help you understand the italicized derivatives. To one student, it was a revelation that he could do something extraordinary and worthwhile. He said, "I'm usually lazy but down here I'm not; I've even been overactive. This experience will improve my grades because I know I can do something outstanding and I'll have more enthusiasm now about all kinds of work." One of his co-workers commented, "Having a little responsibility can bring out the best in people. It certainly helped me." She hopes to dig in France during midsummer next year. "I can hardly believe that someone my age could have the chance to work on a dig," said one 13-year-old. "All my life I've heard and read about the pyramids of Egypt and Mexico. But they're so far away. Illinois is just as interesting a place to learn about the past. And it's closer." Some of the students have already decided to dedicate themselves to careers of investigating the cultures and subcultures of prehistoric man. And almost

18 all of them dream about retracing the route to Kampsville to dig some more. In the following examples sentences 1, 2, and 3 contain words with the same prefix. > Study the italicized words in sentences 1 and 2 to figure out the meaning of the prefix. > Then choose the best definition for the italicized word in sentence 3 and write the letter of that definition in the blank. > The first one is done for you. A. 1. Extracurricular activities are those outside the regular course of study. 2.An extravehicular spacewalk is one which is outside the space vehicle. 3.Something that is extraordinary is С the ordinary. a/ less than Ы in addition to с/ outside B. I. To overburden a truck is to load it with too great a burden. 2. A grocer who overcharged you charged you too much. 3. A student who is overactive is active. a/ too b/ not с/ slightly C. 1. If you greet a friend with outstretched arms, you greet her with your arms stretched out. 2. An outflow from a waterpipe is that which flows out of the pipe. 3. То do something outstanding is to do something that stands from other things. a-' out Ы at a distance с/ in a low position away D. 1. Coauthors of a book work together to write a book. 2. A copilot of an airplane is an assistant or second pilot. 3. A co-worker on a dig is one who works you. a/ apart from b/ with с/ without E. 1. Midyear examinations occur during the middle of the school year. 2. If you take your vacation in mid-july, you are taking it in the middle of July. 3. The student who digs in France during midsummer will be working there during summer. a/ early b/ the middle of с/ late

19 F. 1. A subdivision is a smaller part within a division. 2. A play with subplots has less important plots in it. 3. Subcultures of a society are secondary cultural groups a main culture. a/ outside Ы ranked above с/ within G. 1. A person who repays you a loan pays it back to you. 2. A book that has been recalled to the library has been ordered brought back to the library. 3. The students who dream about retracing the route to Kampsville want to the route to Kampsville. a/ outline Ы avoid с/ go back over The prefix re- can mean "again" as in "refill the jugs with water" or "back" as in "retrace the route to Kampsville." There are many prefixes like re- which may have more than one meaning, depending upon the words they are added to and upon the context in which they are used. Glossary revelation n. striking disclosure responsibility n. (pi. -ies) authority; managerial freedom hardly adv. only with difficulty (can hardly see) dedicate v. (often foil, by to) devote (esp. oneself) to a special task or purpose retrace v. (-cing) go back over (one's steps etc.) S ADDING SUFFIXES TO ROOT WORDS ACTIVITY 6. Part A. Read the following paragraph: Robin Lee Graham was an adventure fifteen when he and two friends set sail in a makeshift boat from Honolulu to Lanai. "We start happy," he wrote, "unaware that a veteran sail never makes a depart on Friday, and so much in a hurry we overlook the small-craft warn." Storm seas were a problem, and wind and waves became danger. Bits of shred canvas flew ribbon through the air.

20 You probably noticed something wrong with the paragraph above. Nobody would actually speak the way it is written. Here is the same paragraph with some of the words changed; read the paragraph and do the following tasks: Robin Lee Graham was an adventurous fifteen when he and two friends set sail in a makeshift boat from Honolulu to Lanai. "We started happily" he wrote, "unaware that a veteran sailor never makes a departure on Friday, and so much in a hurry we overlooked the small-craft warning." Stormy seas were a problem, and wind and waves became dangerous. Bits of shredded canvas flew ribbonlike through the air. (Graham, Robin Lee, DOVE, 1992 from pp. 6-11) 1. The words in italics in the second version are those that have been changed. Where in these words do all the changes occur? 2. Circle the part of each italicized word which does not appear in the first version. 3. In which italicized word is a letter of the spelling dropped before a part is added? Write it here: 4. In which italicized word is a letter changed before the ending is added? Write that word here: 5. In which italicized word is the last letter doubled before an ending is added? Write that word here: A word part that is added at the end of a root word is called a SUFFIX. Words containing a root word and one or more suffixes are derivatives, just like words containing a root word and one or more prefixes. Sometimes the addition of a suffix causes a spelling change in the root word for instance, dropping a letter, changing final у to i, or doubling the last letter.

21 ACTIVITY 6. Part В. HOW SUFFIXES WORK: > Try the three derivatives below in sentences A and B. Write the word that makes the best sense in each blank. > Then do the same with the derivatives given before sentences С and D and sentences E and F. darkly darkness darken A. As the sky began to, Robin and his friends began a fight for their lives. B. Complete brought added difficulties, but after dawn the wind dropped and they hoisted the spare mainsail. careless carelessness carelessly C. Luck was with them in spite of their the Lanai coast. D. They learned a valuable lesson and will never the weather report again., and they reached forget to check safely safety unsafely E. The Coast Guard conducted a sea and air search that ended with news of the of the missing boys. F. Robin and his friends now know that by sailing a makeshift boat they caused their families a lot of unnecessary worry. Both prefixes and suffixes change or add to the meaning of a word. But a suffix does something in addition. It changes the root word so that it can do a different job in the sentence. 1. In the first group of words above, the root word dark which is an adjective, or word that describes something was shown combined with three different suffixes. Write those suffixes here: The combinations formed three different parts of speech darkly is an adverb, darkness is a noun, and darken is a verb. 2. Some words have more than one suffix, as in the group of words for sentences С and D above. If you see two words with more than one suffix,

22 write them in the blanks. Then circle each suffix: A word may have both a prefix and a suffix, or any combination of them. For example: Unfailingly = un + fail + ing + ly (prefix) (root) (suffix) (suffix) 3. If you see a word in the third group (sentences E and F) above with both a prefix and a suffix, write it here: All derivatives are made of root words plus prefixes, suffixes, or any combination of them. Glossary makeshift adj. temporary dawn n. daybreak hoist v. raise or haul up spare adj. not required for normal or immediate use; extra; for emergency or occasional use mainsail n. (in a square-rigged vessel) lowest sail on the mainmast valuable adj. of great value, price, or worth. n. (usu. in pi.) valuable thing ^ COMPOUNDS ACTIVITY 7. Part A. Read the following paragraph paying special attention to the italicized words: "The ecology cause doesn't interfere with my schoolwork too much," says Darlene Clark, 16, an Arizona student. Darlene's interest in providing a pollution-free environment started in eighth grade. Now she is an effective lobbyist who has talked with and influenced both Arizona and U.S. lawmakers about pollution litterbugs who ruin highways and national parks; the poisoning of freshwater fish by industrial wastes; smog caused by coal-burning generators; destruction of wildlife; and jet planes causing noise pollution near airports. (Lynch, Dudley from "Darlene Clark: Teenage Lobbyist" //AMERICAN magazine for girls), November, 1998) GIRL (monthly

23 The italicized words in the paragraph are COMPOUNDS. A compound is formed by combining two or more words, and may be written in one of three ways: 1. It may be written as two separate words. Find such a compound and write it here: 2. It may be written with a hyphen (-). Find such a compound and write it here: 3. It may be written as one word. Find any one-word compound and write it here: 4. Now write the italicized compounds from the paragraph, dividing each into the two words which combine to form it. / / / / / / Some compounds mean just what you would expect when you combine the meanings of the two words that form them. Some extend the meanings a bit, and you need to use a little imagination. But some compounds have meanings that have very little to do with the meaning of the two words that are combined. If you see a word like that in the list you made, write it here: With a compound like this, you must get the meaning from context or some other approach. Sometimes you may have to look it up in the dictionary. ACTIVITY 7. PartB. In each of the following sentences there is an italicized compound. Using context clues to help you, choose the right meaning and underline it. 1.Several jockeys fell while jumping the hurdles in the steeplechase. a/ hunt for a church spire Ы horse race 2. The bullies tried a few threats, but were unable to browbeat us. a/ frighten Ы hit on the eyebrow 3. That television programme was such a cliffhanger we stayed up late to see

24 the ending. a/ person hanging on a cliff Ы suspense story 4. A groundhog crossed the road directly in front of our car. a/ small, furry animal Ы kind of sausage 5. They called him a greenhorn, since he had recently come to the city to find work. a/ grass-coloured trumpet b/ inexperienced person 6. When my friend and 1 argued, he told me I acted like a sorehead. a/ easily angered person Ы aching head 7. The stained-glass windows were made hundreds of years ago, but their beauty is enjoyed today as much as it was by their makers. a/ dirty glass Ы coloured glass forming a picture Glossary interfere v. (-ring) (usu. foil, by with) (of a person) meddle wastes n. waste (being used up) material destruction n. destroying or being destroyed jockey n. (pi. -s) rider in horse-races, esp. professional hurdle n. each of a series of light frames to be cleared by athletes in a race; obstacle or difficulty threat n. declaration of an intention to punish or hurt if an order etc. is not obeyed bully n. (pi. -ies) person coercing others by fear furry adj. (-ier, -iest) like or covered with fur trumpet n. brass instrument with a flared bell and bright penetrating tone

25 S PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER ACTIVITY 8. Part A. Read the passage and do the following tasks: In the past, Jeff Storey had always seemed stubborn and determined to have things his own way as if he were the only one in the Jefferson Drama Club who knew how to drive a nail or to paint a flat! But now, all of a sudden, he seemed to be going out of his way to be helpful to others, to share responsibilities. What might have brought about such overcooperativeness on Jeffs part? Was there something he was aiming for? Perhaps the lead role in the spring play? What does overcooperativeness mem in the passage shown? If you're not sure, try to figure it out: 1.First, divide the word into its root word(s) and its prefixes and suffixes, if it has any. Write them here: prefix(es) rootword(s) suffix(es) 2. Next, look at the root word(s). At first glance you may see three possibilities: coop, opera, and operate. On the basis of context you can probably rule out coop and opera. Try to define the remaining possibility by completing this sentence: When you operate something, you make it. 3. Next, look for a prefix. Co- is a prefix you have seen before in the words coworker and coauthor. What does со- do to the meaning of the root word? Complete the following sentence: When you cooperate with someone, you the person. 4. Now add a suffix. In -ive you'll recognize the same suffix you've seen in overactive. It is a suffix used to form adjectives and can mean "tending to" or "likely to." What does -ive do to the meaning of cooperate? Complete the sentence:

26 When all the members of the club are cooperative, they all are Sometimes when a suffix is added to a word, the spelling is changed a letter is dropped, a letter is doubled, etc. What happens when you add -ive to cooperate? 5. As you've noted by now, overcooperativeness has two prefixes. The other prefix, over-, is also in overactive remember the "too active" worker at the dig? What does over- do to the meaning of cooperative? Complete the sentence: The club member who was overcooperative was 6. A suffix, or the last of two or more suffixes, determines the way the word will be used in the sentence. The -ness suffix is used to form nouns, and one of its meanings is "action or behavior." Therefore, this suffix gives to overcooperativeness the full meaning, "over-cooperative action or behaviour." 7. Now look back at the original sentence and reread the word in context. You can tell from the way the sentence is written that overcooperativeness is a word that describes Jeffs behaviour. This is an important clue. 8. Finally, look at the rest of the context. Jeff has been going out of his way to work with other members of the club. Does his behavior seem to fit your understanding of the word overcooperative-ness? If the meaning you have figured out makes sense in context, there is a good chance that it is the right meaning, or, at least, that it is close to the right meaning. Always check the meaning you have guessed for a word against any possible context clues. When you can analyze the STRUCTURE of a word that seems unfamiliar so as to divide it into familiar parts, you often find that you know the word or at least you can make a good guess about its meaning. If neither structure nor context gives you enough clues to the meaning of a word, however, you will need to use a dictionary.

27 ACTIVITY 8. Part В Read two paragraphs below. > Answer the questions about the italicized words in the first paragraph. Write the letter of the correct choice in the blank. There were many preproduction jobs that had to be taken care of before the play could go on. The platforms they were going to use, for example, were all different sizes and shapes. This kind of nonstandardization would have to be corrected so that the platforms could be quickly and easily readapted for different scenes during the play. At least getting the kids to work wasn't problematical. There had been an exceptionally good turnout for cast and crew calls the best ever, in fact and all the members were supercharged with enthusiasm. If anyone might have suspected Jeff Storey of untrustworthiness, he would have been wrong. Jeff had only a secondary role, but he hadn't gone back to his old independency he was still cooperating as if he'd discovered teamwork can be fun. 1. The root word of preproduction is. a / prep b / prod с / rod d / produce e/ duct 2. The root word of nonstandardization is. a/ stand Ы tan с/ and d/ standard e/ dare f/ standardize 3. The root word of readapted is. a / read b / ad с / adapt d / apt e / ape > Circle the root word(s) in each of the derivatives listed below. Then in your own words write what you think the derivative means as it is used in the context of the second paragraph. 1. problematical 2. supercharged 3. untrustworthiness 4. independency

28 Glossary stubborn adj. obstinate, inflexible drive a nail: забить гвоздь paint a flat: покрасить поверхность determined adj. showing determination; resolute, unflinching helpful adj. giving help; useful share v. have or use with another or others; distribute; have in common turnout n. 1 number of people attending a meeting, voting at an election, etc. 2 set or display of equipment, clothes, etc. cast n. actors in a play etc. secondary adj. coining after or next below what is primary / CHOOSING THE RIGHT MEANING ACTIVITY 9. Part A. Read the dictionary entry and the sentences with the word "hot". What does hot mean in the sentences below? hot adj. (hotter, hottest) 1 having a high temperature. 2 causing a sensation of heat (hot flush). 3 (of pepper, spices, etc.) pungent. 4 (of a person) feeling heat. 5 a ardent, passionate, excited, b (often foil, by for, on) eager, keen (in hot pursuit), с angry or upset. 6 (of news etc.) fresh, recent. 7 hunting (of the scent) fresh, recent. 8 a (of a player, competitor, or feat) very skilful, formidable, b (foil, by on) knowledgeable about. 9 (esp. of jazz) strongly rhythmical. 10 slang (of stolen goods) difficult to dispose of because identifiable. 11 slang radioactive. v. (-И-) (usu. foil, by up) colloq. 1 make or become hot. 2 make or become more exciting, or dangerous. Li have the hots for slang be sexually attracted to. hot under the collar angry, resentful, embarrassed, like hot cakes see *cake. make it (or things) hot for a person persecute a person. U hotly adv. hotness n. hottish adj. [Old English] hot air n. slang empty or boastful talk. A. "J accidentally bit into something hot -1 think it was a chili." An examination of context clues shows you that hot in sentence A describes food that has a burning taste. Now suppose you hear someone say: B. "Things are hotting up." Which meaning of hot do you suppose the speaker has in mind?

29 Again using context clues, you can see that the word is used here as a verb. If you try substituting each of the verb definitions in the context of the sentence, you will see that only the second one makes sense. The speaker is using a colloquial expression for "make or become more exciting, or dangerous. " But suppose you overhear someone say: C'The two sisters are very different - Jane's fond of hot air while Lucy is really quiet". Which definition of hot is being used? Do any of the meanings listed above make sense? By going on to the entry for hot air you can understand that Jane is fond of empty or boastful talk The right definition is the one that makes the best sense in context. When an entry contains several meanings, you must read them all to decide which is best. ACTIVITY 9. Part B. Read the following sentences. On the blank before each sentence, write the number of the definition of the italicized word that makes the best sense in that context. join v. 1 (often foil, by to, together) put together; fasten, unite (with one or several things or people). 2 connect (points) by a line etc. 3 become a member of (a club, organization, etc.). 4 a take one's place with (a person, group, etc.). b (foil, by in, for, etc.) take part with (others) in an activity etc. (joined them in prayer). 5 (often foil, by with, to) come together; be united. 6 (of a river etc.) be or become connected or continuous with. n. point, line, or surface at which things are joined. join battle begin fighting, join forces combine efforts, join hands 1 clasp hands. 2 combine in an action etc. join in (also absol.) take part in (an activity), join up 1 enlist for military service. 2 (often foil, by with) unite, connect. [Latin jungo junct-] meant v. (past and past part, meant) 1 have as one's purpose or intention (meant no harm by it; I didn't mean to break it). 2 design or destine for a purpose (meant to be used). 3 intend to convey or refer to (I mean Richmond in Surrey). 4 (often foil, by that) entail, involve, portend, signify (this means war; means that he is dead). 5 (of a word) have as its equivalent in the same or another language. 6 (foil, by to) be of specified importance to (that means a lot to me). mean business colloq. be in earnest, mean it not be joking or exaggerating. mean well have good intentions. mean2 adj. 1 niggardly; not generous. 2 ignoble, small-minded. 3 (of capacity, understanding, etc.) inferior, poor. 4 shabby; inadequate (mean hovel). 5 a

30 malicious, ill-tempered, b US vicious or aggressive in behaviour. 6 US colloq. skilful, formidable (a mean fighter). LI no mean a very good (no mean feat). D meanly adv. meanness n fitl adj. (fitter, fittest) 1 a well suited, b qualified, competent, worthy, с in suitable condition, ready, d (foil, by for) good enough (fit for a king). 2 in good health or condition. 3 proper, becoming, right (it is fit that). v. (- tt-) 1 a (also absol.) be of the right shape and size for (dress fits her; key doesn't fit), b (often foil, by in, into) be correctly positioned (that bit fits here), с find room for (fit another on here). 2 make suitable or competent; adapt (fitted for battle). 3 (usu. foil, by with) supply. 4 fix in place (fit a lock on the door). 5 = fit on. 6 befit, become (it fits the occasion). n. way in which a garment, component, etc., fits (tight fit), adv. (foil, by to + infin.) colloq. so that; likely (laughing fit to bust). fit the bill = fill the bill, fit in 1 (often foil, by with) be compatible; accommodate (tried to fit in with their plans). 2 find space or time for (dentist fitted me in), fit on try on (a garment), fit out (or up) (often foil, by with) equip, see (or think) fit (often foil, by to + infin.) decide or choose (a specified action). fitly adv. fitness n. fit2 п. 1 sudden esp. epileptic seizure with unconsciousness or convulsions. 2 sudden brief bout or burst (fit of giggles; fit of coughing). LI by (or in) fits and starts spasmodically, have a fit colloq. be greatly surprised or outraged, in fits laughing uncontrollably. Any child wanting to join the after-school club should see Mrs Williams. The Ml motorway joins the M62 just outside Leeds. It's been glued back together so well you can hardly see the join. He lied about his age in order to join up with the republican army. 'Poultry' means chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese. You did that on purpose, didn't you? You're so mean! 1 know she means well but I wish she'd stop interfering. My brother's really mean. He's never brought anyone a birthday present in his life. I'm sure you'll be able to find a suitable dress thatfits.you're a standard size. We came back from our cycling tour suntanned and fit. Don always has me in fits when he talks about his camping trips. They wanted someone young to join the team, someone who would fit in.

31 / MAKING DEFINITIONS FIT ACTIVITY 10. Part A. Read the sentence below; pay attention to the italicized word. Do the following tasks. "We gorged ourselves with the cookies that were left." gorge п. 1 narrow opening between hills. 2 act of gorging. 3 contents of the stomach. v. (-ging) eat greedily until full; stuff with food. one's gorge rises at one is sickened by. [French, = throat] Which of the definitions makes the best sense in this context? Copy the definition exactly in the blank below: "We with the cookies that were left." ourselves Read the whole sentence to yourself. Does it sound the way someone would actually say it? If not, you'll need to change a word or perhaps several words to make the definition "fit" the context. Rewrite it below: "We with the cookies that were left." ourselves There are many ways you might rewrite this particular definition to make it fit. For example, you might write, "We ate greedily the cookies that were left until we were full. " Or you might write, "We stuffed ourselves with the cookies that were left." Very often it is necessary to rearrange the words in a dictionary definition or to change them before you can fit them into context. ACTIVITY 10. Part B. Read the sentence and the entry, choose the definition that makes the best sense in the sentence and rewrite the sentence the way you would say it. The cat came padding softly across the kitchen floor and jumped into my lap.

32 padl п. 1 thick piece of soft material used to protect, fill out hollows, hold or absorb liquid, etc. 2 sheets of blank paper fastened together at one edge, for writing or drawing on. 3 fleshy underpart of an animal's foot or of a human finger. 4 guard for the leg and ankle in sports. 5 flat surface for helicopter take-off or rocket-launching. 6 slang lodgings, flat, etc. 7 floating leaf of a water lily. v. (-dd-) 1 provide with a pad or padding; stuff. 2 (foil, by out) lengthen or fill out (a book etc.) with unnecessary material, [probably Low German or Dutch] pad2 v. (-dd-) 1 walk with a soft dull steady step. 2 travel, or tramp along (a road etc.), on foot. n. sound of soft steady steps. [Low German pad *path] The cat came softly across the kitchen floor and jumped into my lap.

33 Unit 2. CENTRAL IDEA S WHAT IS IT ABOUT? ACTIVITY 1. Part A. Below is a list of the names of men. Think of a heading for this list - a word or words that describe all the men - and write that heading on the line. Charles Dickens William Makepeace Thackeray Oscar Wilde Rudyard Kipling William Somerset Maugham Now circle the letter of each name below that could be added to the list, a/ Franklin Roosevelt Ы Madame Tussaud с/ Herbert George Wells d/ John Galsworthy e/ George Bernard Shaw f/ Sherlock Holmes The most obvious heading is "English Writers " but there are a number of other possibilities as well, such as "Englishmen" or "Famous Men." Such a heading tells the subject and is one way of answering the question, "What is it about?" One name for a general term like this is TOPIC. ACTIVITY 1. PartB. In each of the following three groups, circle the one word that is the topic for all of the other words in the list: clothing beef swimming jacket liver sport shirt ham hockey belt pork diving shoes meat tennis scarf lamb skiing ACTIVITY 1. PartC. Cross out the one item in each group that does not belong. Then, on the line above the list, write a word that tells the topic for all of the items remaining in the list.