HJEMMEOPGAVER, PROJEKTER, SYNOPSER M. MUNDTLIGT FORSVAR Home Assignments, Project Reports, Synopses with oral defence

Transcription

1 OBLIGATORISK FORSIDE Prescribed front page HJEMMEOPGAVER, PROJEKTER, SYNOPSER M. MUNDTLIGT FORSVAR Home Assignments, Project Reports, Synopses with oral defence INSTITUT FOR ERHVERVSKOMMUNIKATION Department of Business Communication NAVN: Name (If writing in groups, please state names of all group members) CPR-NR.: Danish ID-Number (If writing in groups*), please state ID-numbers of all group members) EKSAMENSNR. (PÅ STUDERENDE): Student Exam No.: (6 digits at the top left corner of you Student ID-card) HOLD NR.: Class No. Ex.: U02 FAGETS NAVN: Course/Exam Title VEJLEDER: Name of Supervisor ANTAL TYPEENHEDER I DIN BESVARELSE (ekskl. blanktegn): Number of Characters in your Assignment (exclusive of blanks): Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen Lone Secher Wingreen Christensen Oversæt 3e BA Projekt Anne Gram Schjoldager 99,541 *) Ved skriftlige gruppeopgaver skal den enkelte deltagers bidrag tydeligt fremgå. *) In written group exams, your individual contribution must be clearly identifiable.

2 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 2 of HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON - A comparative analysis of the translations into Danish and French subtitles focusing on the preservation of humour. Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) & BA English/French Supervisor: Anne Gram Schjoldager 2

3 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 3 of Contents 1 Introduction (LC & MR) Summary of How to Train Your Dragon (LC & MR) Methodology and Theory (LC & MR) Translation (LC) Subtitling (LC) Culture (LC) Macrostrategies (MR) Source-text oriented macrostrategy Target-text oriented macrostrategy The skopos theory (LC) Microstrategies (LC) Direct transfer Calque Direct translation Oblique translation Explicitation Paraphrase Modulation Condensation Adaptation Addition Substitution Deletion Permutation Humour (MR) Translating Humour Types of humour Irony Visual humour The Incongruity theory Wordplay and puns Surreal humour Parody Metaphors Language-specific humour Culture-specific humour Analysis of the Danish and French subtitles (LC & MR) Scene 2 (LC & MR) Analysis of the chosen examples (LC & MR) Segment 5 (LC) Segment 6 (LC) Segment 7 (LC)

4 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 4 of Segment 10 (LC) Segment 14 (MR) Segment 19 (MR) Segment 21 (MR) Segment 23 (MR) Segment 24 (LC) Segment 30 (LC) Segment 32 (LC) Segment 33 (LC) Segment 34 (MR) Segment 37 (MR) Segment 38 (MR) Segment 39 (MR) The overall macrostrategy (LC & MR) Estimation of the Danish macrostrategy (LC) Estimation of the French macrostrategy (MR) Results and Comparison (LC & MR) Expected results (LC & MR) Microstrategies (LC & MR) Danish microstrategies (LC) French microstrategies (MR) Macrostrategies (LC & MR) Danish macrostrategy (LC) French macrostrategy (MR) Humour (LC & MR) Danish humour (LC) French humour (MR) Comparison (LC & MR) Conclusion (LC & MR) Discussion (LC & MR)...63 References...64 Abstract...66 Appendix A: Manuscript...67 Appendix B: Microstrategies...74 Appendix C: Successful Humour

5 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 5 of Introduction In spite of a relatively short lifetime, Dreamworks Animation SKG has already entertained children as well as adults with several successful movies such as Shrek, Madagascar and Monsters vs. Aliens. The animated movie How to Train Your Dragon is based on the children s book of the same title by Cressida Cowell (Cressida Cowell s webpage). It is the typical story about a nobody becoming somebody. We have chosen to use this English-language movie and its Danish and French subtitles as the data in our project because we fell for the charm and wit of the characters and have wondered how these are affected by the process of translation. While watching the movie we noticed several interesting translation choices in connection with the subtitles which we would like to investigate. Even though this movie may appear to be a children s film there are several aspects of the content which are meant for adults, such as irony and linguistic peculiarities. We know from personal experience that a poor screen translation can make the audience lose focus and therefore it seems obvious that a good translation is an essential criterion of success for any movie. The movie we have chosen is a humorous one, which is why it will be natural for us to focus a great part of our attention on the translation of humour and humour in general. When humour is involved the preservation of the effect is crucial and the way in which this is done is very interesting. Therefore, we would like to investigate this phenomenon. By the means of theories of humour we will seek to categorise the way it is used in the movie and reflect upon the preservation of the original humour in the target texts. Whether the right effect is retained in the target text is essential to the result and for this reason we consider the aspect of humour very interesting and relevant for the subject in question. In order to investigate this, we will select relevant examples of humorous dialogue and analyse them. We want to compare the Danish and French translations with the English original respectively, after which we will compare the results. We expect the differences in translation in connection with the translation strategies and humour to be more significant in the translation from 5

6 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 6 of English to French than in the translation from English to Danish, because we consider the cultural distance between France and the United States of America to be greater than that between Denmark and the USA. The different translation choices will be categorised according to their microstrategies. The project will start off with a section containing our choice of methodology and theories to clarify our approach to the research. We will deal with theories concerning translation and humour to create a foundation for the analysis. From there we will move on to the analysis where we will study chosen segments and give an account of the applied translation strategies. Furthermore, we will analyse the different kinds of humour used and try to discover the degree to which it has been preserved in the translations. We will compare the translation methods used in the Danish target text and the French target text. This will be done in order to discover possible linguistic and cultural differences. Moreover, we will present our findings in a conclusion to sum up our results. Finally, there will be a section with a discussion of possible opportunities for further investigation. In short, our main aim is to study the use of macro and microstrategies and whether the humour of the characters is preserved from the source text to the target texts. This will be done by taking a closer look at how the humour of the English-language movie is rendered in the Danish and French subtitles and how the translations are made. We will investigate this by the aid of the following sub-questions: What kind of humour is used? Which macro and microstrategies are employed in the Danish and French translations? What are the differences between the Danish and French subtitles and why is this so? Is the humorous effect preserved? 6

7 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 7 of Summary of How to Train Your Dragon The movie is set on the Isle of Berk where Vikings live in constant fear of dragons. This is where Hiccup lives along with his father, Stoick, who is the chief. Hiccup does not behave like a Viking and people regard him as being weak. Stoick is not proud of his son, and has already concluded that Hiccup is never going to be a worthy successor. However, Hiccup is determined to prove himself. He wants to kill a dragon and one day, by accident, he actually hits something - an unknown, extremely dangerous Night Fury. He sets out to kill the dragon but cannot make himself do it. Instead, he names the dragon Toothless and makes him his pet. This is not normal Viking behaviour, so Toothless has to remain a secret. In the meantime, the town is in a fever of excitement because the young Vikings have started dragon training. Hiccup is a reluctant participant, and has to split his time between training, and taking care of his new friend. Through Toothless, Hiccup discovers some of the secrets of dragons and is in that way able to tame the dragons. Toothless rudder is damaged and he is dependent upon Hiccup to help him fly. Hiccup is doing well in dragon training which makes one of his opponents, Astrid, a little suspicious. The thing with Astrid is that Hiccup is completely in love with her. She discovers their secret and wants to turn them in, but soon she is amazed by both Toothless and Hiccup. Hiccup has won the right to kill his first dragon, everybody is watching, and he will not do it. Instead, he tries to convince everyone that dragons are not evil, this is where everything goes wrong. Stoick does not believe that dragons can be tamed. Toothless rescues Hiccup but is captured himself and is forced to take part in Stoick s plan to find the dragons nest. The Vikings set out, guided by Toothless, leaving the young recruits behind. In discovering the nest, the Vikings also discover an enormous dragon. Luckily, Hiccup and the other recruits arrive on dragonback to save the day. Hiccup is almost killed in the fight but Toothless saves him and Stoick finally realises how wrong he has been all along. Days later, Hiccup wakes up to a wooden leg, a kiss from Astrid and a town where Vikings and dragons live in harmony. Toothless and Hiccup are both missing a spare part but together they are complete. 7

8 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 8 of Methodology and Theory As previously mentioned the project is based on the computer animated movie How to Train Your Dragon and can therefore be described as being based on an empirical analysis. The study will focus on the subtitles of the movie and the techniques for translating English speech into written Danish and French respectively. Our data will make it possible to conduct a comparative analysis of the source text and the two target texts. With a starting point in the translation strategies described by Schjoldager (2008) we will try to clarify which techniques a translator has for translating a text in general. The focus will be on the use of macro and microstrategies. In order to expand on and clarify the theories, the thoughts and explanations of Jeremy Munday (2008) and Nigel Armstrong (2005) on the subject of Vinay and Darbelnet s theories will be incorporated into the assignment. Humour is another important aspect of this movie and an interesting discipline of translation. Therefore, it is an obvious choice to start off with a definition of humour and follow up with different categories of humour to investigate the types and their usage in the translations. For this purpose we will apply Katja Pelsmaeker s and Fred Van Besien s theory of irony as presented by Jeroen Vandaele (2002). Moreover, we will incorporate the theories of Alison Ross (1998) to describe different kinds of humour which will assist us in the classification of our examples. Other theories will be used to provide important background information about translation in general, and screen translation. The theories mentioned above will be applied to carefully selected examples from scene 2 in the movie, along with others. The scene has been chosen since the use of humour occurs very often and it is apparent that a lot of different microstrategies have been employed. The examples have been chosen to include interesting and varying translation strategies as well as different kinds of humour. Furthermore, the examples should as far as possible be intriguing in both the Danish and French target texts. The trilingual manuscript of scene 2 can be found in Appendix A. 8

9 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 9 of Translation The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines to translate as to change written or spoken words into another language. This makes the discipline of translation sound rather simple, but this is not always the case. There are different kinds of translations methods and therefore also more than one way to get to a final result. In for example screen translation it is very important that the translation is carefully conducted if the movie is to be a success in other countries. Translation involves more than a change of language. The translator must always be aware of the target group because the cultural settings might be more or less different from one culture to another. Furthermore, the style of writing must be taken into account as well as the enabling of understanding (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 135) Subtitling Subtitling is a special kind of translation which is found on screen in for example films, documentaries and TV-series. A number of countries prefer subtitles, whereas others might favour other kinds of screen translations such as dubbing or voice over. However, subtitling is the less expensive type of screen translation (Gottlieb 2008: 208). The subject of screen translation has occupied many theorists over time such as Jorge Diaz-Cintas and Aline Remael, Jane Elisabeth Thomsen, Jan Pedersen and Henrik Gottlieb. Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) deal with the discipline of subtitling and could have been a relevant source of knowledge if we had wanted to make a translation ourselves, instead of analysing somebody else s translation. The work of Thomsen (2011) focuses on the macro and microstrategies used in the animated movie Shrek and her work has been used as a source of inspiration in our research since it addresses some of the same issues. The interesting work of Gottlieb (2008) deals with subtitles in a more descriptive way which fits with our point of departure and will be used in this section on subtitling. Theorists sometimes refer to subtitling as a form of diamesic translation; this term tells us that the translation changes not only language but also medium during translation. One example of 9

10 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 10 of this phenomenon is the change from speech to writing which occurs in motion pictures, it can, however, also be the other way around; from writing to speech (Gottlieb 2008: 210). This form of translation comes with some limitations as people can only understand a rather small quantity of information or text in a limited amount of time (Gottlieb 2008: ). Furthermore, when a translator converts spoken words into text there must be some alterations. Certain expressions belong to the spoken language and do not fit the written language. The real challenge lies in the process of translating not only into another culture and language but into another medium: From speech to written text (Gottlieb 2008: 208). When translating speech into subtitles, the translator must realise that the future viewers will always be aware of the translation taking place, since both the source text and the target text will be present at the same time. On a side note, allowing the spectators to read a translation while they are hearing the original words simultaneously will, in certain countries such as Denmark, where a large percentage of the population can be thought of as bilingual (Gottlieb 2008: 234), very possibly expose the translator to some complaints, because a lot of people will have their own opinion about how the translation should have been made. Under these conditions the good subtitles are the ones you never notice (Pedersen 2007: 40), meaning that the translation should feel as natural as possible for the audience in order to make the subtitles as little disturbing as possible Culture Edward Tylor defined culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. (Longhurst et al. 2008: 2). This tells us that there are several aspects to consider before translating a text from one language/culture to another language/culture. Some cultures are relatively similar, whereas others may be miles apart and the further apart they are the more adjustments are needed in the translation. The differences between cultures might be so great that what is considered common knowledge or a part of everyday life in one culture may 10

11 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 11 of be completely unknown in another (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 136). An example of this could be that even though Great Britain, France and Denmark are geographically close there are still some expressions which are almost impossible to translate. However, they do have translations. The problem is that people in other cultures would not understand them, as with the English desserts spotted dick and treacle tart which are virtually unknown to Danes and Frenchmen. (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 135). Therefore, they must be translated into a wellknown equivalent which would create the same feeling in the target culture Macrostrategies The term macrostrategies refers to the overall translation method, which a translator may employ during the translation process. When addressing a translation task there are different ways of handling the translation problems which will occur during any translation job. According to Anne Schjoldager, there are two possible ways of approaching the data in question. These are the source-text oriented strategy and the target-text oriented strategy (Schjoldager 2008: 67). The choice of strategy depends on a number of factors such as the purpose and the audience of the text. Another thing to consider could be which effect the translator wants to create. Before translating, one should reflect on where the focus should be, how the translation should appear and whether the audience is aware of the fact that a translation is taking place Source-text oriented macrostrategy This strategy centres the attention on the original text and emphasises the importance of both the style and content (Schjoldager 2008: 72). This means that an aspect such as cultural differences is likely to be pushed aside and that the focus of the translation is turned towards a more direct translation method. The aim is to stay loyal to the original text. Furthermore, the source-text oriented approach is often used when the translator is translating data which can be characterised as somebody else s communication and doing so without changing the meaning. Another important aspect of the source-text oriented macrostrategy is the fact that 11

12 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 12 of the translation will come across as overt to the audience. This means that the receivers are perfectly aware of the text being a translation (Schjoldager 2008: 72). Certain types of data are more likely to be translated by the use of the source-text oriented approach, and this macrostrategy is often found in documents like manuals and informative labellings Target-text oriented macrostrategy When using this overall translation strategy the translator will focus on the meaning of the source text. This implies that the process of translating a text will not be as direct as it is when using the source-text oriented macrostrategy. The most important objective in connection with the target-text oriented macrostrategy is to recreate the effect of the source text (Schjoldager 2008: 72). The translator s role is to adjust the target text to possible differences from one culture to another in order to generate the right reaction from the audience. Often the material which is translated is supposed to function as a remediation from one part to another. Hence, it becomes more likely that the audience would not notice that the data is translated, this makes the translation covert (Schjoldager 2008: 72). The target-text macrostrategy is often found in documents such as poems, songs and in the translation of humour The skopos theory In the 1970s the skopos theory was coined by Hans J. Vermeer and has been an important translation tool ever since (Schjoldager 2008: 151). Jeremy Munday describes the skopos theory as follows: Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result (2008: 79). This theory has the ability to assist a translator in determining whether a source-text oriented strategy or a target-text oriented strategy should be used. In the determination of an overall translation strategy a translator should consider the purpose and thereby the skopos of the target text. Furthermore, according to Anne Schjoldager, the translator should take the functional and communicative nature into account (2008: 155). This can be done by means of the theory of translational action (Schjoldager 2008: 12

13 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 13 of ). Another important part of this theory is the brief which supplies the translator with information about the wishes of the client, the target group etc. (Schjoldager 2008: 157). The source text in itself greatly affects the choice of strategy as different elements of a text carry different degrees of importance and help determine the optimal method of translation (Schjoldager 2008: ). Finally, a translator should try to remain loyal to both the source text and the target text and in order to do that the skopos and the translation strategy are important factors (Schjoldager 2008: 159) Microstrategies Microstrategies can be referred to as the different translation methods which can be used in specific translation situations. This means that instead of dealing with the overall translation (the macrostrategy), the translator takes a closer look at phrases, sentences and words on a micro level (Schjoldager 2008: 89). Microstrategies are extremely important to consider in the translation of texts as there are many different ways of translating. For most people, it will probably seem obvious that a direct translation is the best option, however, this is far from always true, sometimes it would be preferable to change the wording completely. The different strategies which we will be focusing on within the microstrategies are: Direct transfer, calque, direct translation, oblique translation, explicitation, paraphrase herein also modulation, condensation, adaptation, addition, substitution, deletion and permutation Direct transfer Applying this microstrategy to a translation entails using a direct copy of a unit from the source text (Schjoldager 2008: 93). This is what Vinay and Darbelnet refer to as borrowing and it is usually found in connection with names and places. This is done, for example, when retaining foreign words in order to add a cultural twist (Munday 2008: 56). A direct transfer can also be employed when the target language does not have a sufficient equivalent or perhaps a suggestion which is even remotely close to the original word or term (Armstrong 2005: 143). An 13

14 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 14 of example from the movie could be the name Stoick, which has been transferred directly from the English original to the French version Calque When a translation can be identified as calque it is because it follows the original structure of the source text. However, the outcome will usually seem unidiomatic to the target-text audience (Schjoldager 2008: 94). This may all seem a little negative but according to Nigel Armstrong calque translations have their advantages too; for example, these translations will be easy to spot if they are connected to a certain culture and they will most likely also be somewhat shorter than a translation which is the result of a direct translation as this may need some sort of explanation (Armstrong 2005: 146) Direct translation Direct translation is often considered to be the obvious choice when making translations; it is a so-called word-for-word translation. This microstrategy is, as opposed to calque, normally perceived as idiomatic (Schjoldager 2008: 95+96). Vinay and Darbelnet refer to this as literal translation and add that literalness should only be sacrificed because of structural and metalinguistic requirements and only after checking that the meaning is fully preserved (Munday 2008: 57). Direct translation places the focus on the forming of sentences, and the placing of words, rather than on the use of words (Armstrong 2005: 147) Oblique translation Oblique translation is very similar to direct translation which means that the target text is very close to the source text in both instances. However, when using an oblique approach the translator will tend to centre the focus on the preservation of the sense of the source text, it is a so-called sense-for-sense translation (Schjoldager 2008: 97). 14

15 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 15 of Explicitation Another microstrategy which can be used as a translation tool is explicitation. A translator may run into situations where it would be necessary to add certain details in order to make the audience understand the full meaning of the translation (Schjoldager 2008: 99). For example, in the Danish subtitles from the movie the English word inside is translated into personlighed Paraphrase Paraphrasing can be defined as a translation where the meaning is retained but the wording may be completely different from the source text. This means that the length of the text can be severely altered (Schjoldager 2008: 100) Modulation Vinay and Darbelnet s theory of modulation is part of Schjoldager s microstrategy paraphrase (Schjoldager 2008: 100). According to Vinay and Darbelnet modulation constitutes a change in point of view from the source text to the target text (Munday 2008: 57). Modulation entails that the source-language perception will be somewhat reversed when the term in question reaches the target language; what is lost may become found, where may become when and so on (Armstrong 2005: 151) Condensation A translator may run into situations where it would be more natural to leave out certain details in order to make the audience understand the full meaning without telling them things they already know. This is referred to as condensation (Schjoldager 2008: 102). Armstrong refers to this phenomenon as non-translation or compression, and suggests that it may also be employed when something occurs in the source text which will be very hard to translate into another language because it is so closely related to the culture from which it stems (2005: 159). 15

16 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 16 of Adaptation Adaptation puts the focus on the effect of the text, in trying to reproduce the effect of the source text in the target text. This may very well mean that the wording and the literal meaning of the source text will not be preserved, the effect, however, will (Schjoldager 2008: 103). Armstrong claims that this is the most free type of translation as the translator may change the content of the original text completely in the target text; Walmart may become Carrefour, rugby may become football or an eagle may become a falcon - it all depends on the cultural setting of the target text (2005: 155) Addition When applying the microstrategy of addition to a translation task the translator adds a new and meaningful element to the target-text version. This means that the additional part does not originate from the source text in itself. Addition is closely related to the microstrategy of explicitation (Schjoldager 2008: ) Substitution Substitution is found whenever there is a change in meaning in the translation from the source text to the target text. Even though the semantic meaning is altered it is still apparent that it originates from a certain source text. A translator might use this microstrategy in order to make the target text seem more accurate to him or herself (Schjoldager 2008: 106). An example of this could be the translation of Hiccup into Harold in the French version of the movie Deletion The microstrategy of deletion entails deleting certain items from the source text. This means that the units which are deleted will in no way be present in the target text, not even as implicit or unspoken parts of another unit, they will simply be left out (Scholdager 2008: 108). 16

17 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 17 of Permutation The term or microstrategy of permutation is the recreation of an effect from the original text, in the target text. However, this effect will be placed differently than it is in the source text. By using this strategy the translator makes a choice to keep a certain effect from the source text but also to move it to another place in the text. This would most likely happen because it would be quite difficult to keep it in its original position (Schjoldager 2008: 109). 2.2 Humour The subject of humour has been investigated by several theorists, of which we have chosen to include: Dirk Delabastita (1997), Marta Dynel (2009), Peter Alan Low (2011), Peter Newmark (1988), Katja Pelsmaeker and Fred Van Besien (2002), as well as Alison Ross (1998). The works of these theorists is relevant to our research in their own individual way and describe different areas of humour in a more contemporary fashion than many other scholars within the field. The works of Walter Nash (1985) and Victor Raskin (1984) could also have been made use of in our research. However, they both seem relatively outdated compared to the other possibilities. According to Alison Ross humour can be defined as: Something that makes a person laugh or smile (1998: 1). However, humour can be a lot of things and the essential factor is that it is all in the eyes and ears of the beholder/listener. What someone considers to be funny depends on personal preferences, culture and social settings. When a person is alone the tendency to laugh is diminished, whereas company can influence the amount of laughter in a positive direction, though not always. When watching something familiar which someone would usually find funny, company can also have the opposite effect if the majority does not laugh (Ross 1998: 1). Humour can be difficult to define and as Ross highlights her definition may be a little too narrow. People do not have to laugh to consider something funny as they might laugh even though they do not find it funny at all (1998: 1). Humour might lose its power over time if it is repeated too often and becomes too well-known (Ross 1998: 4). This indicates that humour is most successful when our brains encounter something new and get surprised as a result. 17

18 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 18 of Translating Humour Since humour is grasped differently from one person to another it might make up quite a challenge to the translator. When translating humour, it is, according to Peter Alan Low (2011), very important to recognise which type of humour is used. The nature of the text can assist the translator in deciding how relevant the humour is and thereby the importance of preserving the humour in the target text. Furthermore, the intended effect of the humour should be considered in order to gain knowledge about how to translate the humour in question. Moreover, it can be advantageous for the translator to reflect upon whether the humour is specific to one language or culture to create the original effect from the source text for the new target audience (Low 2011: 60-61). In short, the key element to a successful humour translation is: preservation of the effect Types of humour Humour can be divided into several different categories. The most important kinds of humour have been selected and will be described in the following. These are: Irony, visual humour, the incongruity theory, wordplay and puns, surreal humour, parody, language-specific humour and culture-specific humour Irony Irony is a special kind of humour which can be described as follows: In terms of locutionary act, irony arises when there is some kind of contrast or incongruity between what is said (the proposal content) and what can be inferred from the situation (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 243). What is essential to irony is that it often functions as some kind of criticism since the spoken utterance will contain either incongruity or superiority. However, irony is often accompanied by a twinkle in the speaker s eye and therefore it is meant to be humorous (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 242). Ironic remarks can also function as positive or complimentary irony, but this kind of irony is not as widespread (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 244). There are different ways in which irony can be used and can for example be found as oppositions, 18

19 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 19 of understatements, overstatements and sentences which are not strictly truth-sensitive (meaning an utterance where people would have to search for a deeper meaning which is not said), (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 243). Irony can be difficult to use in practice because as humour in general depends on personal preferences so does the use of irony. Some people might find a particular use of irony hilarious while others could be offended or hurt by the utterance. According to Pelsmaeker and van Besien this may depend on whether a person feels targeted by the content of the ironic statement or not (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 242). If someone feels criticized the irony will not be grasped as funny and thereby the humorous function will be lost. There are different reasons for making use of ironic utterances depending on which effect or result is intended. Irony can for example serve as requests or statements in order to make people act or intercept a certain message or information (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 245). To make sure that the audience knows that irony is used the sender will often tend to indicate this by the means of what is referred to as ironic cues. These cues can either take the form of non-verbal signs for example by talking through the nose or speaking very slowly or forcefully. They can also function as verbal signs being expressed by reappearances, interjections and intensifiers (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: ) Visual humour Visual humour is obviously not spoken but it is something funny shown with images. It can sometimes be connected to what is said and function as a kind of support to words which helps underline a point or make something spoken more funny (Ross 1998: 5). However, it might also be completely out of context. Some of the tools which can be used to convey humour in a visual way are movements and facial expressions such as smiles, frowns, scowls and wry faces. 19

20 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 20 of The Incongruity theory Another kind of humour relies on the incongruity theory which tells us that people find something funny when they are surprised by the content. In order to succeed at this kind of humour a person will most likely arrange particular words carefully and time them well (Ross 1998: 7). Incongruous humour is based on misunderstandings: A person is made to believe that what is said has one meaning but in fact the words are ambiguous, and may suggest a completely different meaning than anticipated. The unexpected amuses people (Ross 1998: 8). This is closely related to wordplay and puns Wordplay and puns Wordplay and puns can be identified when there is structural ambiguity. They can have many different functions and we have chosen the ones we consider to be most relevant in connection with humour in movies. First of all, the phonology principle gives people the possibility of being ambiguous by playing with words and their sounds. Homophones are words which have different meanings and spellings but are pronounced similarly. (Ross 1998: 9). An example of this could be the words made and maid. Another phenomenon is that of homonyms which are words with the same spelling and pronunciation. However, these identical words have different meanings (Ross 1998: 9). An example of this could be the word mean which can be both a verb and an adjective. Second of all, the morphology of some words can be changed to create another meaning than the original. This is done by adding, changing or deleting prefixes and suffixes in order to make something funny (Ross 1998: 14). Prepositions are polysemic and can seem very similar to homonyms. However, homonyms have completely different meanings, whereas polysemes have the same meanings but fit into different contexts (Ross 1998: 17). As can be seen in for example the word on: On a table or on New Year s Eve. Third of all, syntax can play an important role in the aspect of humour. Sentences can have completely different meanings even though the words are the same. The placing of stress in speech is essential to the understanding (Ross 1998: 20). 20

21 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 21 of Wordplay is a kind of humour which is usually specific to one language only (Low 2011: 62) this will be dealt with in one of the following sections: Language-specific humour Surreal humour When humour is used to illustrate something unrealistic it can be referred to as surreal humour. Children are often unaffected by realism, they have no worries but instead they have a lively fantasy enabling them to relate to strange and impossible situations, creatures and objects (Ross 1998: 36). An example of this from the movie could be the fact that it features dragons, which do not exist Parody This kind of humour occurs when somebody makes fun of someone else by copying their behaviour, attitude, manner of speaking etc. In order to poke successful fun at somebody by the use of parody there has to be a person to make fun of whom all the listeners are familiar with in some sort of way (Ross 1998: 48). Furthermore, a parody does not always entail targeting a person but can also be used to imitate certain religious communities, professions, organisations etc Metaphors Peter Newmark defines metaphors as: Any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e. to describe one thing in terms of another (1988: 104). Differently put, a metaphor is a comparison between two objects which would normally have little in common. What makes a metaphor funny is the fact that it is unexpected and brings something new to the situation. Furthermore, when a metaphor is created there is incoherence between the two compared elements (Dynel 2009: 31). The audience will react by laughing or smiling because something strange or unsuitable to the situation is mentioned. 21

22 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 22 of Language-specific humour According to Peter Alan Low the largest part of humour specific to one language entails the use of some sort of wordplay which can sometimes be made funny by strange pronunciations or other useful means like for example parody - as explained in the above (2011: 62). The humorous use of words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings, commonly known as homophones, is something which can to a certain degree be categorised as specific to only one language (Delabastita 1997: 217). However, there are some instances where pairs of homophones have an equivalent in another language with the same meanings as those of the source language (Low 2011: 63) Culture-specific humour This kind of humour often relies on the use or mention of a person or institution which everybody who is part of the culture in question would know about, and thereby they would be able to understand why it is funny (Low 2011: 68). People who are not part of the culture in question may have a really hard time relating to what is basically a kind of private joke. This can be because they either do not know about the things mentioned or because it is simply not in their culture to think that these subjects are particularly funny (Low 2011: 67). Furthermore, what is funny in one culture may be something which is rarely spoken of in another (Low 2011: 68). 22

23 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 23 of Analysis of the Danish and French subtitles In the process of discovering different translation strategies and types of humour we will go through all of the segments given below. The analysis of most examples consist of two parts: One section concerning the translation strategies employed and another section about the humour incorporated in the example. However, not all examples contain humour and therefore this part will be left out. Furthermore, every part of the analysis will contain thoughts on the Danish target text, as well as taking the French target text into account. But first of all, this section will be introduced by a summary of scene Scene 2 Hiccup and Gobber return from a dragon attack where Hiccup succeeded in wrecking the village. Hiccup is convinced that he hit a dragon, however, Gobber is not, and they discuss Stoick s reasons for disliking Hiccup. Here the scene changes and we are at a Viking s meeting, Stoick is speaking. He is a proponent of the Vikings taking action and finding the dragons nest and encourages the other Vikings to accompany him on a quest to destroy the dragons home. The others are not as enthusiastic about his proposal as he is. However, when they are presented with the alternative of looking after Hiccup they all volunteer. The other Vikings leave while Stoick and Gobber remain. Stoick feels dejected because he does not consider Hiccup fit to be a Viking and Gobber tries to persuade Stoick into putting Hiccup in dragon training. Stoick shares some childhood memories and concludes that Hiccup is not like him. 23

24 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 24 of Analysis of the chosen examples Segment 5 HICCUP And when he does, it's always with this... disappointed scowl. Like someone skimped on the meat in his sandwich. (MIMICKING STOICK) Excuse me, barmaid. I'm afraid you brought me the wrong offspring. I ordered an extra large boy with beefy arms. Extra guts and glory on the side. This here. This is a talking fish bone. Når han gør, er det med et skuffet udtryk, som om nogen har snydt med kødet i hans sandwich. Undskyld mig, kromutter, men det er det forkerte afkom. Jeg bestilte en ekstra stor dreng med stærke arme og ben i næsen. Det der er et talende fiskeben. Quand il écoute, il fait la tronche, comme si on mégotait sur son bifteck. Mam zelle, y a eu erreur sur ma progéniture. J ai commandé un taureau XL, avec tripes et lauriers en garniture. Ça, c est une arête qui cause! Translation strategies: In this excerpt several different microstrategies can be found. We have chosen to focus on the ones which in our opinion are the most interesting technically and academically. When taking a look at the phrases highlighted in blue we find an example of the microstrategy adaptation. The original meaning of the source text remains, but in the Danish version some of the effect is lost in the translation. The Danish word udtryk only means expression, whereas the English word scowl indicates more than just an expression. It is generally understood from scowl that someone is looking at someone else in an angry way. Put differently, the intended effect is preserved but only in part since the feeling of anger is left out in the Danish version. In the French translation the meaning is also only maintained partially. However, the French version has lost even more of the original effect because faire la tronche only means to make a face, hence, the angry feeling contained in scowl is completely lost and the disappointed part is only 24

25 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 25 of somewhat recreated. It cannot be directly deduced from the French subtitles that there is a feeling of disappointment but the context implies it. The pink marking represents three different microstrategies: Direct translation, adaptation and deletion. Direct translation is used in the Danish subtitles since it is a word-for-word translation which is employed and it is the closest translation possible to the source text. It is an obvious solution for the translator to make a direct translation of this phrase because it remains completely idiomatic when translated into Danish. Excuse me, barmaid becomes undskyld mig, kromutter which means almost exactly the same. Deletion and adaptation are both employed in the French target text. The translator has chosen to leave out excuse me thereby making a deletion. However, this can be done in French without losing any great part of the meaning as the word mam zelle when spoken with a high intonation indicates an enquiry. Even though the French version does not include an enquiring opening, the French natives will still understand the meaning. Furthermore, the French translator has made a small adaptation as the word mam zelle does not mean barmaid. It means miss and therefore does not indicate someone working in a pub or bar and some of the meaning is thereby lost. Moreover, the expression mam zelle is an example of a colloquialism as it is an informal version of the word mademoiselle. The phrases highlighted in green represent two different microstrategies: Oblique in the Danish version and a direct translation in the French version. Depending on one s idea of the Danish expression ben i næsen the translation can be categorised as either a substitution or an oblique translation. If this saying is understood as meaning having a mind of one s own it changes the intended meaning of the source text, consequently, a substitution has been made. However, if the expression is grasped in the way that we understand the expression, the translation represents an oblique translation. We fathom this phrase as meaning tough and strong, in this way the meaning remains the same as in the source text but the words are different. Hence, it is an oblique translation. In the French target text, the translator has managed to make a direct translation as the meanings and the words are the same. 25

26 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 26 of Humour: Many different types of humour have been incorporated into this part of the movie such as: Parody, irony, visual humour and metaphor. The last part of the extract is a parody where Hiccup is aping his father s way of talking, acting and looking. The audience is aware of Stoick s normal behaviour and can relate to his character in the movie. This is one of the conditions if a parody is to be successful. What makes it funny is the fact that the spectators are able to recognise Stoick in Hiccup s exaggerated imitation. This kind of humour is supported by the use of irony which is introduced by an ironic cue. As soon as Hiccup starts talking with an exaggerated version of his father s accent the audience becomes aware of the fact that he is about to say something with an ironic twist. In fact, everything said during the parody has an ironic meaning. Furthermore, while Hiccup is making fun of his father he is also visualising the parody by the use of body language. He indicates strength by squeezing his own arm and gesturing wildly. When visuals are used simultaneously with parody and irony it reinforces the humour. This part of the scene also includes the use of a metaphor. The metaphor consists of Hiccup comparing himself to a dish. This is clear from the specific language which is normally associated with the placing of an order in a restaurant. Words like ordered and on the side are meant to make the audience think of food. The Danish version makes use of the same metaphor but because on the side has been left out some of the meaning is lost. However, in the French translation both ordered and on the side have been translated into commandé and en garniture. In general, irony and parody work well and remain intact in all three languages. The Danish translator does not manage to recreate the effect of the original resulting in a much weaker metaphor. 26

27 Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) Page 27 of Segment 6 GOBBER You're thinking about this all wrong. It's not so much what you look like. It's what's inside that he can't stand. Du har misforstået noget. Det er ikke dit udseende Det er din personlighed, han ikke kan lide. Tu as tout faux. C est pas ton aspect mais ce que tu es, qui l énerve. Translation strategies: This example contains several different microstrategies and we will be taking a closer look at the following translation strategies: Oblique translation, paraphrase, deletion, explicitation and adaptation. The translated sentences highlighted in blue are both translated rather freely, which could make one think of a paraphrase. Even though the Danish translation du har misforstået noget, meaning you have misunderstood something, is translated quite freely it has still preserved the original sense from the source text. Therefore, it can be classified as an oblique translation. The French translation, on the other hand, is what can be referred to as a paraphrase because tu as tout faux means you are totally wrong. Thereby, the meaning is somehow retained but the wording is very different and so is the length of the sentence. When a person is totally wrong he or she could not be more wrong, whereas when a person has misunderstood something he or she is only wrong to a certain degree. In short, it can generally seem rather difficult to distinguish the two microstrategies used because the differences between them are somewhat small. However, a closer look at the sentences reveals the fact that they operate in dissimilar ways. The microstrategy of deletion can be found in the pink marking. The English source text it s not so much what you look like is translated into the Danish sentence det er ikke dit udseende and the French sentence c est pas ton aspect which both mean it is not your appearance. The translations show us that both the Danish and the French translator have chosen to leave out so much, which in our opinion carries important meaning in the context. The words so much hint at the fact that Hiccup s father neither likes his son on the inside nor on the outside. 27