MUZIKOLOŠKI L II / 1

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1 MUZIKOLOŠKI Z B O R N I K MUSICOLOGICAL A N N U A L L II / 1 Z V E Z E K / V O L U M E L J U B L J A N A

2 Izdaja Published by Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Glavni in odgovorni urednik Editor-in-chief Jernej Weiss (Ljubljana) Asistentka uredništva Assistant Editor Tjaša Ribizel (Ljubljana) Uredniški odbor Editorial Board Matjaž Barbo (Ljubljana) Aleš Nagode (Ljubljana) Svanibor Pettan (Ljubljana) Leon Stefanija (Ljubljana) Andrej Rijavec (Ljubljana), častni urednik honorary editor Mednarodni uredniški svet International Advisory Board Michael Beckermann (Columbia University, USA) Nikša Gligo (University of Zagreb, Croatia) Robert S. Hatten (Indiana University, USA) David Hiley (University of Regensburg, Germany) Thomas Hochradner (Mozarteum Salzburg, Austria) Bruno Nettl (University of Illinois, USA) Helmut Loos (University of Leipzig, Germany) Jim Samson (Royal Holloway University of London, UK) Lubomír Spurný (Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic) Katarina Tomašević (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Serbia) John Tyrrell (Cardiff University, UK) Michael Walter (University of Graz, Austria) Urednici recenzij Review editors Danijela Špirić Beard (Cardiff University, UK) Katarina Šter (Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia) Uredništvo Editorial Address Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofska fakulteta Aškerčeva 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija muzikoloski.zbornik@ff.uni-lj.si Prevajanje Translations Urban Šrimpf Cena posamezne številke Single issue price 10 EUR Letna naročnina Annual subscription 20 EUR Založila Published by Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Za založbo For the publisher Branka Kalenić Ramšak, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Tisk Printed by Birografika Bori d.o.o., Ljubljana Naklada 300 izvodov Printed in 300 copies Rokopise, publikacije za recenzije, korespondenco in naročila pošljite na naslov izdajatelja. Prispevki naj bodo opremljeni s kratkim povzetkom ( besed), izvlečkom (do 50 besed), ključnimi besedami in kratkimi podatki o avtorju. Nenaročenih rokopisov ne vračamo. Manuscripts, publications for review, correspondence and annual subscription rates should be sent to the editorial address. Contributions should include a short summary ( words), an abstract (not more than 50 words), keywords and a short biographical note on the author. Unsolicited manuscripts are not returned. Izdajo zbornika je omogočila Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije With the support of the Slovenian Research Agency Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, 2016

3 Vsebina Contents Marija Bergamo»ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA «V spomin na Katarino Bedina Lana Paćuka Aspects of Slovenian musicians activity in the musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo ( ) Vidiki delovanja slovenskih glasbenikov v avstro-ogrskem Sarajevu ( ) Katarina Tomašević On the Paths of Béla Bartók s Modernism Followers and Companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević Na sledi sledilcem in sopotnikom modernizma Béle Bartóka: Josip Slavenski in Marko Tajčević Aida Islam, Stefanija Leshkova Zelenkovska Musical Elements in the Performing Approach: Sonatina in C for Two Pianos from a Macedonian Contemporary Composer Glasbene prvine v službi interpretacijskega pristopa: Sonatina v C za dva klavirja makedonskega sodobnega skladatelja Ludim R. Pedroza The Joropo in Venezuela s Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in José Clemente Laya s Sonata Venezolana Joropo v venezuelski glasbeni moderni: kulturni kapital v skladbi Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye Dimitar Ninov Functional Nature of the Cadential Six-Four Funkcionalna narava kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda 73 96

4 Andraž Poljanec Akustične lastnosti timpanov in njihova povezava z inštrumentalno prakso The Acoustic Properties of Timpani and their Connection with the Instrumental Practice Zoran Potočan Analiza zvena višjih in srednjih moških pevskih glasov s historičnih posnetkov Analysis of the Timbre of High and Middle Voiced Male Singing Voices in Historical Recordings Karmen Brina Kodrič, Hotimir Tivadar Instrumentalna fonetična analiza pétih samoglasnikov in pravorečje popularnega pétega besedila popevke Instrumental and Phonetic Analysis of Sung Vowels and the Orthoepy of Sung Lyrics of Popular Slovene popevka Songs Sonja Weiss Medicine for Body or Soul? Philosophical Reconstruction of the Role of Music in Ancient Healing Practices Zdravilo za dušo ali telo? Filozofska rekonstrukcija vloge glasbe v antičnih zdravilskih praksah Barbara Sicherl Kafol, Olga Denac, Jerneja Žnidaršič Interest of Slovene Students in Listening to Various Musical Genres Interes slovenskih študentov za poslušanje različnih glasbenih zvrsti

5 Recenzije Reviews Disertaciji Dissertations Imensko kazalo Index Avtorji Contributors

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7 M. BERGAMO»ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA...«Marija Bergamo»ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA...«V spomin na Katarino Bedina Verz iz naslova verz Mirka Kovača posreduje generacijsko občutenje lastnega položaja v obdobju poslavljanja. Iz podobnega občutenja sledi nekaj misli, ki bi jih rada zabeležila ob odhodu kolegice in dolgoletne sopotnice v stroki. Tvegam zagrešiti preoseben pogled na pretekli čas, vendar samo takega zmorem. Izkušnja mi kaže, da z vsakim strokovnim prispevkom enako kot z gesto, pogledom, obnašanjem pravzaprav govorimo o sebi. Kdaj pravzaprav govorimo o drugem? S Katarino sva se spoznali v zgodnjih šestdesetih letih. Pravkar sem bila diplomirala na zgodovinskem oddelku beograjske Akademije za glasbo, ko me je leta 1962, ob družinskem obisku v Ljubljani, profesor Ukmar, s katerim so bili v stiku moju starši, povabil na diplomski izpit Boruta Loparnika na zgodovinskem oddelku ljubljanske Akademije. Zame nepozabno popoldne, nov ritual, primerjave. Po izpitu izčrpna debata v Slonu. Katarina, še študentka, je bila prijazno središče dogajanja. Z nekdanjih rednih letnih sestankov študentov raznih akademij smo se bežno poznali, zdaj poglobili znanstvo. Naslednji skoraj dve desetletji smo se»spremljali od daleč«, vedeli drug o drugem, kaj kdo počne, srečevali na Zagrebškem biennalu, prevajala sem slovenske prispevke za Zvuk, zbirala gradivo za Bilten Zveze skladateljev Generacija si je gradila svoj»prostor pod soncem«s skupnim imenovalcem naših hotenj: z vsemi močmi podpreti stroko, vgraditi svoj delež, biti koristen. Zavedali smo se, da smo na začetku, da nas je premalo, da so možnosti šibke, vendar entuziazma ni manjkalo.»delamo na etični pogon,«je tedaj formuliral Andrej Rijavec, ko sta z Jožetom Sivcem krepko podprla profesorja Dragotina Cvetka pri utemeljevanju ( ) in organiziranju dela Oddelka za muzikologijo na Filozofski fakulteti. V dveh drobnih kabinetih so, skoraj kot zarotniki, kovali učne načrte, zbirali zunanje sodelavce, nabavljali strokovno literaturo. (Še danes kažejo knjižnične signature Oddelka za muzikologijo iz 60-ih let preteklega stoletja značilne poteze Rijavčeve pisave.) Začetki institucionalizacije stroke že na Akademiji za glasbo enako kot nato na Filozofski fakulteti so bili zelo trdi. Pravo pionirsko delo. Menim, da si malokdo danes lahko predstavi, kako je delati brez kopirnih strojev, avdio opreme, solidne knjižnice, brez prave predavalnice. Kljub temu je bilo delo uspešno, organizacija vse trdnejša, ugled Oddelka v širšem prostoru vse večji. Ožjemu predavateljskemu timu so se pridružili zunanji sodelavci, na povabilo profesorja Cvetka je biblioteko leta 1971 prevzela Katarina Bedina. Petnajst let, vse do prehoda v predavateljske vrste, jo je vzorno vodila. Sproti je izpopolnjevala in posodabljala knjižni fond, spremljala nove objave, sugerirala nabavo, sprejemala želje in naročila, opozarjala na članke v strokovnih 7

8 revijah, ki jih ne kaže spregledati. Poleg tega je bila v tej mali skupnosti ljubezniva in vedno prisotna pomoč v organizaciji dela, urnikov, pri stikih s študenti, tajnica Oddelka. Nepogrešljiva opora. Oddelek je za Katarino postal drugi dom. Vzporedno je nadaljevala svoje strokovno izpopolnjevanje, magistrirala je (1979/80 z razpravo o Francu Šturmu), doktorirala (1984 z disertacijo o fenomenu sonatne oblike in njeni fizionomiji v slovenski tvornosti za klavir), objavljala prispevke v Muzikološkem zborniku, Grlici, Naših zborih, Zvuku, pripravljala radijske oddaje, recenzije, številna gesla za enciklopedije in leksikone (Slovenski biografski leksikon, Enciklopedija Slovenije, Muzička enciklopedija Jugoslovanskega leksikografskega zavoda in dr.). Natančnost in zanesljivost sta bili del njene narave, dragoceni za delo na Oddelku. Predavateljskemu timu sem se na povabilo prof. Cvetka leta 1981 pridružila tudi sama. Z veliko željo prispevati svoj delež,»pokriti«, po dogovoru, nekatera dotlej deficitna strokovna področja. S Katarino sva se poslej bližje spoznali, pozneje delili isti kabinet. Družabno agilna mi je odprla tudi vrata svojega doma. Z Borutom smo v troje absolvirali ure pogovorov o glasbi, o novih knjigah, o koncertnih dogodkih. Vedno ob gostiteljskih delikatesah njene izvrstne kuhinje. Ko je Katarina leta 1986 kot docentka prevzela, ob klasicizmu, predvsem izbrana poglavja zgodovine slovenske glasbe in začela graditi svojo pedagoško fizionomijo so se najini strokovni nazori močneje konfrontirali. S časom tudi razhajali. (Nič nenavadnega, saj je danes jasno, da je tudi znanost družbeno početje in se različne paradigme kažejo v večnem stanju nadziranega spopada.) Ko danes, post festum gledam na procese in dogajanja v skoraj dveh desetletjih skupnega strokovnega in pedagoškega dela vseh nas, se mi prav razlike v prijemih, pogledih na snov, na teoretične podstati, pa v osebnostni staturi vsakega od nas, ne na koncu tudi v značajskih potezah rišejo v pozitivnejši luči kot takrat, ko jih je vsakdan znal negativno konotirati. Prav naše razlike so namreč študentom razstirale pahljačo možnih pristopov strokovni snovi, različna videnja istega, kreativna prestavljanja poudarkov, različno utemeljene vrednostne sodbe. Bilo je to plodovitejše od enoglasja, ki pravzaprav zavira, ker utrjuje le eno resnico, metodo, koncept. Mislim, da mi izidi dajejo za prav. Današnja slovenska srednja in mlajša muzikološka generacija, ki tako uspešno in internacionalno odmevno zaznamuje podobo stroke, je izšla iz naše šole. Nasleduje in potentno razvija prav to mnogoličje pristopov. Upa si spregovoriti z osebnim angažmajem, zavzeti lastno stališče, seveda z rigorozno znanstveno argumentacijo. Različni so, izrazito profilirani, ustvarjalni. Ponosna sem na njih.»glasbi je potreben zgodovinski čas«, piše Leon Stefanija. Res je. Samo v njegovem okviru je možno brati tudi muzikološke dosežke; brez vrednotenja, ki je vedno prepuščeno prihodnosti. Naš generacijski muzikološki čas se mi iz današnjega vidika kaže kot protisloven: po eni strani je bil gotovo stabilnejši od današnjega; adlerjanski temelji in dosežki sjajne nemške muzikologije druge polovice 20. stoletja, že odomačeni pri nas, so zagotavljali teoretično podstat za lastne raziskave in analize. Zgodovinska matrica, ki temelji na vzpostavljanju in risanju vzročno-posledičnih sosledij ter zasledovanju logične kontinuitete dogajanj je bila še polnoveljavna. Z ideološkimi okviri smo se znali nositi in jih največkrat ignorirati. Po drugi strani pa je tema tako imenovanega zamudništva predstavljala tisto točko, na kateri so se v navezavi na njeno aktualnost že med dvema svetovnima vojnama razvijali nestrpni polemični spopadi. Zastopniki 8

9 M. BERGAMO»ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA...«evolucijske postopnosti v glasbenih snovanjih niso pristajali na hitro dohajanje zamujenega in takojšnjo vključitev domače glasbe v obzorja najsodobnejših estetik in tehnik po svetu, ki so motivirale njihove nasprotnike. Dinamično muzikološko prizorišče kaže pestro pahljačo opozicijskih stališč. Posebej pri obravnavi tem, ki se nanašajo na glasbo 20. stoletja. Bilo je nekako samoumevno, da se je treba opredeliti, se individualno pozicionirati, postaviti na pravo stran. Iz takšne situacije je treba brati muzikološko literaturo našega časa. Zaslediti je, vsaj v ozadju, vedno nekakšno binarno opozicijskost: nacionalno kosmopolitsko, tradicionalno-moderno, nazadnjaško-avantgardno, staro- -novo, kot da bi vso resnico življenja glasbe kazalo poiskati prav z njihovo pomočjo. Katarina je od vsega začetka videla sebe na strani novega in je tej ideji ostala zvesta do konca svoje muzikološke poti. Od Slavka Osterca do Vinka Globokarja je razpela svoj argumentacijski lok in s pristno, skoraj bojevniško dikcijo zastopala osterčevsko našo stvar. Od diplomske naloge s temo o Slavku Ostercu (1964), prek vrste izvirnih prispevkov v Muzikološkem zborniku in drugje v naslednjih treh desetletjih se je vedno znova vračala na njegovo delo, ki ji je bilo vzor. Končno je leta 1995, ob stoletnici skladateljevega rojstva, zbrala in uredila Zbornik ponatisov o življenju in delu Slavka Osterca (Varia musicologica 2) z uvodno študijo Nazori Slavka Osterca v tradiciji v glasbi in o glasbemnem nacionalizmu. Ko danes beremo njena izvajanja se poraja občutek, da se je na nek način istovetila ne samo z njegovimi idejami, temveč tudi z njegovim viharnim, nebrzdanim tonom,»znanim preziralnim tonom do vsega, kar je omejevalo razvoj slovenske glasbe«kot je zapisala. Osterčeva radikalna drža ji je imponirala. Kot da bi ji bil Osterc ponudil tisto predinterpretacijsko zaveso, o kateri govori Milan Kundera. Katarinini muzikološki teksti pričajo, da je s poglabljanjem v nikakor naključno izbrane odlomke zgodovinskega gradiva in obravnave izbrane tematike pravzaprav gradila občutek sebe v zgodovini, vzpostavljala povsem osebni razgovor tako s preteklostjo kot s svojim časom. Njen ton ni nikoli nevtralen. Z izbrušenimi formulacijami in inventivno leksiko, v jeziku vrednem občudovanja, se bori za svoje protagoniste, vzpostavlja lastne kriterije, vrednoti, riše kontinuitete. (Že Nietzsche je pisal o tem, da je zgodovina vedno»v procesu izdelave«.) Tako razpravlja o razvojnih tokovih slovenske glasbe, o zgodovinskih ishodiščih identitete slovenskega glasbenega dela. Zelo kritično. (Na»plus stran«je knjižila, denimo, svobodomiselni nazor, strokovni naboj, popolno odgovornost ljudi, ki se poklicno ukvarjajo z glasbo, zahtevne in v svet obrnjene glasbene kriterije, na»minus strani«pa je ugotavljala med drugim premoč ideološkosti, zbegano javno mnenje, poplitveno umevanje glasbe, provincialnost, ozkost, razcepitev glasbenega mišljenja ) Ta kritični koncept pridobi ponekod skoraj ritualni ton. Posebej v poznejših besedilih, ko se je uveljavljala kot zaščitnica muzikološke stroke in borec za njeno veljavo kot nacionalne vede v novem družbenem kontekstu. Neutrudljiv družbeni angažma jo je vodil v vrsto odborov, komisij, žirij, do prodekanstva na Filozofski fakulteti. Svoja stališča je izražala jasno in pri njih neupogljivo vztrajala. Danes imam občutek, da je močno želela biti del timskih projektov in akcij, čeprav jo je njen značaj v tem omejeval. Težko je sprejemala drugačno mnenje. Njeni študenti pričajo o trdi in neizprosni šoli. Verjamem jim. Zahteve v seminarjih so bile jasne, neizvršitev ali ugovorov ni tolerirala. Mislim pa, da ji je večina danes zelo hvaležna. Edina med nami je mukoma vztrajala pri skrbni, natančni, tehnično 9

10 neoporečni izdelavi muzikološkega aparata (tehnike opomb, načinov citiranja, navajanja virov in literature), tega dodatnega ogledala muzikologa. Ko danes berem novejša muzikološka izvajanja, ki razpolagajo z naknadnimi pogledi na glasbene fenomene 20. stoletja s teoretično prečiščenimi matricami za obravnavo modernizma, avantgarde, pa tudi antimodernizma, z vzpostavljeno terminologijo in jasno definiranimi pojmi, s priročnimi vpogledi v razne tuje muzikološke smeri in šole (ne samo nemško, danes predvsem angleško) se zavedam, da se je čas ene muzikološke generacije iztekel. Muzikologija na Slovenskem je danes institucionalizirana in internacionalizirana. Upam pa, da se bodo iz tekstov naše generacije, tudi iz Katarininega muzikološkega dela, dala razbrati pričevanja o življenju glasbe pri nas v bližji preteklosti, ki je danes že zgodovinsko obdobje ter z blago simpatijo odkrivati Katarinine»sanje o pomenu nove glasbe za izpolnitev generacijskih nalog«kot je svoje in njene ideale formuliral Jakob Jež in se hkrati z nostalgijo vprašal, ali»se bodo časi entuziazma za odkrivanje novih zvokov še kdaj v širšem obsegu ponovili?«. Seveda bodo na dlani tudi naša neodgovorjena vprašanja, zadrege in slepe ulice, naši razmislekov o glasbi, ker je življenje, kakršnega smo živeli in ga poznamo odvisno od naših idej, te pa vedno nehajo biti veljavne prav pred usodnim trenutkom. Mlajši morda še ne dojemajo, da so zmote starejših bile neizogibne, ker so del njihovega časa, tako kot bodo tudi njihove napake del časa, ki ga sami živijo. Muzikologija je vedno s svojim razpravljanjem soudeležena pri proizvajanju diskurza, ki sicer pripada glasbi, vendar je esencialno ne določa, temveč ji pripisuje le relativne kulturološke lastnosti, ki predmetu dajejo recentni vrednostni status ali pomen. Nič drugače kot vsak drugi diskurz o umetnosti. Ne vem, če bi se Katarina z menoj strinjala, verjetno se kot po navadi ne bi. Vem pa, da jo bomo zagotovo mnogi obdržali v prijateljskem spominu. 10

11 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... UDK 78.07(=163.6)(439.5Sarajevo) 1878/1918 DOI: /mz Lana Paćuka Akademija za glasbo, Univerza v Sarajevo Academy of Music, University in Sarajevo Aspects of Slovenian musicians activity in the musical life of Austro- Hungarian Sarajevo ( ) Vidiki delovanja slovenskih glasbenikov v avstro-ogrskem Sarajevu ( ) Prejeto: 2. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: Avstro-Ogrska, Sarajevo, slovenski glasbeniki, glasbeno življenje IZVLEČEK Članek prinaša zgoščen vpogled v delovanje slovenskih glasbenikov, ki so živeli v Sarajevu med vladavino Avstro-Ogrske. Poleg aktivnosti slovenskih glasbenikov na kolektivni ravni se članek ukvarja tudi s prizadevanji posameznikov in hkrati s prizadevanji iz gledišča gostujočih umetnikov. Slovenski gostujoči umetniki, kot denimo s področja operne umetnosti, so bili eni najbolj cenjenih ansamblov, ki so obiskali avstro-ogrsko Bosno in Hercegovino. Received: 2nd October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: Austro-Hungary, Sarajevo, Slovenian musicians, Musical life ABSTRACT The paper provides a concise insight into the activity of Slovenian musicians residing in Sarajevo during the Austro-Hungarian administration. Besides the Slovenian musicians activities at the collective level, the paper discusses their individual endeavours and also endeavours from perspective of guest artists. Guest Slovenian artists such as Slovenian opera, was one of the most renowned ensemble that visited Austro-Hungarian Bosnia and Herzegovina. Socio-historical contexts The complexity of the musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo can be discussed from a few different angles and perspectives, one of them certainly referring to the impacts of certain national groups on the circumstances of musical trends development of the time. The discussion of the given issue in the period becomes even 11

12 more interesting if we have in mind that the West-European side of the musical life of Sarajevo, as the centre of Austro-Hungarian administration in B&H, 1 was in its infancy and thus characterized by the absence of institutional form of musical life and the reduction to music practice dependent on individual endeavours in a particular area of musical activity. 2 A set of individual endeavours made up the main backbone of musical life, building gradually its mosaic-like structure where each, even apparently less essential element, was crucial for the construction of a larger, coherent whole. Interestingly, individual endeavours in the area of musical life were typically initiated by national groups who in the first decades of occupation were mostly of foreign origin. 3 Foreign artists were in charge of sowing the first germs of the West-European musical culture, and they spread their influence in two ways: through settlement and continued activity in Sarajevo and B&H, and through shorter tours that greatly enriched the picture of concert life of the time. In these contexts, it is possible to track and get an insight into the role of Slovenian musicians in the development of Sarajevo musical life in the period Therefore, the discussion of the topic that opens the issue of the significance and role of Slovenian musicians is universal, since it touches upon the very core of the B&H musical life in the period of Austro-Hungarian administration, and it can be claimed that Slovenians activity is the picture of the musical life of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only smaller. 4 Actually, in the national diversity in B&H Slovenian musicians made up only one cell, though a cell whose patterns of functioning were also the patterns of functioning of the musical life as a whole. Thus, although according to the 1910 census 1 Occupation of B&H by Austro-Hungary officially started with the decision of the 25 th Berlin Congress in Over the 40 years duration of the occupation, Sarajevo has the position of the capital, while its transformation from an Oriental into West-European system of values was attached a great significance. All the new socio-political and cultural ideas were first implemented in Sarajevo, with the aim of creating a political and economic centre which would be the ideal model for establishing a modern social order in B&H. In the very beginning of the occupation, construction of electricity distribution network, water supply and drainage system, electric tram started in Sarajevo, while the construction of railway led to the opening of many state-owned enterprises and thus to the increasing inflow of foreign employees, which ultimately resulted in the changed demographics of the city. Under the new authorities, the city also changed its visual identity and became a model for sending a message of a successful mission of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in B&H. Robert Donia, Sarajevo: Biografija grada (Sarajevo: Institut za istoriju, 2006), Arts were viewed as one of the most powerful weapons in propagating state authorities, which in the case of musical life meant nourishing music to the extend and in the form which was the most suitable for promoting the key values of the new administrative regime. In other words, Austro-Hungary did not initiate the development of musical trends at the level of music institutions in any planned or systematic way, and the musical life therefore developed as a result of general socio-cultural happenings. The regime supported and encouraged the development of more complex forms of the cultural and then musical life in small doses, which resulted in a lack of the comprehensive and complete formation of musical institutions. Actually, the ultimate reach of the musical institutions development in the Austro-Hungarian period can only be viewed through the discourse of a few formed musical institutions (schools of music, music/singing societies, travelling theatre groups) and primarily through the discourse of the form of a musical event (public concert, parties, musical get-togethers, dances, etc.). Lana Paćuka, Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave ( ) (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2014), Most foreigners in B&H came from the Serbocroatian-speaking region (50.76% of the total number of foreigners), and they were followed by Germans, Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovenians, Romanians, Slovaks, etc. The immigrants were mostly concentrated in Sarajevo, and then in Tuzla. Iljas Hadžibegović, Postanak radničke klase u Bosni i Hercegovini i njen razvoj do godine (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1980), Slovenians activity in the B&H musical life is the subject of fairly few papers, one of them is Vedrana Tičić s master s thesis Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini (2012). However, the thesis primarily focuses on the data on Slovenian musicians activity after the First World War (1918), while their engagement in the period of Austro-Hungarian administration is not discussed in great detail. 12

13 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... data as few as 1,181 Slovenians lived in Sarajevo, 5 their participation in the musical life, in terms of quality, had the same outlines as the activity of other, more numerous ethnic groups inhabiting B&H, since the activity of both depended on the socio-political circumstances, i.e. cultural patterns that were strictly controlled and imposed by Austro-Hungarian authorities. Slovenians started arriving to B&H immediately after the beginning of the occupation, together with other immigrants, in the form of skilled labour that Austro-Hungary badly needed for implementing the civilizing ideas. And while the first years of occupation mostly saw the inflow of Germans, Austrians, Czechs, Hungarians and Italians, Slovenians started settling after 1905, and the most frequents towns of their choice were Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Zenica, Tuzla, Mostar, Prnjavor and Prijedor. 6 By profession, immigrants of Slovenian origin were forestry workers and miners, artisans, clerks, entrepreneurs as well as intellectuals, teachers, cultural officials and scientists who went to the listed B&H towns depending on the needs of service. Since, in the vision of Austro-Hungarian authorities, Sarajevo was supposed to be a socio-cultural model for the development of all the other B&H towns, it is not surprising that most intellectually oriented Slovenians such as professors, teachers and cultural officials chose the B&H capital as their place of residence. This was proved by Jakob Žnidaršič, a respectable teacher and principal of Great Grammar School, 7 who came to Sarajevo early in 1880 and, together with a few cultural officials became one of the pioneers of the development of Slovenian community in this region. 8 Involvement in musical flows or on the collective aspects of Slovenian musicians activity Although the Slovenian community in Sarajevo was not numerous, Slovenian immigrants tried to get actively involved in the newly-arrived developments of the sociocultural life. One of the key forms of Slovenians involvement in social and cultural circumstances was the establishment of cultural-educational societies, as a reflection of the desire for preserving and nourishing their own culture and tradition. These motives were in line with immigrants general needs, since they were trying to transfer cultural patterns from their environments to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and one of the 5 Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Popis stanovništva,1910; Vedrana Tičić, Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini (Master thesis, University of Sarajevo, 2012). 6 Tičić, Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini, Great Grammar School in Sarajevo was founded in the fall of 1879, and was the first high-school institution in B&H established during the Austro-Hungarian administration. It could be attended by pupils regardless of nationality and religion, and was considered one of the most elite schools of Austro-Hungarian B&H. The backbone of its curriculum consisted of courses in science, and a great attention was paid to music education as well. Music-related courses such as singing and violin-playing were designed to develop a sense of music culture, musical literacy, and the development of musical taste. What singled the Great Grammar School out compared to other educational institutions was fully qualified teaching staff, who were also the backbone of the Sarajevo cultural life. Todor Kruševac, Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom (Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1960), ; Spomenica Prve gimnazije u Sarajevu prilikom proslave 50-godišnjice ( ) (Sarajevo: Državna štamparija, 1929), Jakob Žindaršić was born in Košana in 1847, and died in Sarajevo on 19 October He was one of the first Slovenian immigrants to Sarajevo and was actively involved in pedagogy. Tičić, Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini,

14 most frequent ways of achieving these goals was the idea of association. 9 Still, the idea of association on B&H soil had a somewhat different path than in other European countries, because for Austro-Hungary it was a direct danger of rousing national awareness among the local people, which could ultimately threaten its strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Actually, Austro-Hungary strove to suppress and stifle political friction based on national impulses with promoting religious values. On the other hand, they tried to unify cure and turn it toward West-European standards, whereby the unique Bosnian nation, language and thought would be directed toward the idea of the unified Austro-Hungarian Empire. 10 In order to achieve the set goals, the ideas on the formation of the first societies were viewed with a high degree of caution. The caution was obvious to the extent that, in the first ten years of occupation, the authorities did not allow any form of association regardless of continuous requests and enquiries. 11 Still, a few associations, primarily of international character, managed to be formed in Sarajevo in the first years of occupation, and their basic goal was to nourish conviviality without national signs or ideas. 12 Under the described conditions, characterized by strictly controlled socio-cultural life, Slovenians gathered around two cultural-educational societies, known as Slovensko omizje [Slovenian panel] (1897) and Slovenski klub [Slovenian club] (1910). 13 Although they had fewer members than other, larger international and national societies of the time, Slovenian societies were also thoroughly involved in nourishing their own culture, tradition, as well as general education of their members. Thus, for example, Slovenski klub had a rich library and reading room and, according to some sources, an agile singing choir that regularly participated at social events. 14 Along the same lines, social parties were organized, primarily aimed at nourishing and promoting the national culture, as well as gathering together members of the Slovenian community in Sarajevo. It should be noted that such gatherings were generally well received by public, and were covered by the press of the time, with favourable comments on 9 Paćuka, Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave ( ), Sarita Vujković, U građanskom ogledalu. Identiteti žena bosanskohercegovačke građanske kulture (Banja Luka: Muzej savremene umjetnosti Republike Srpske, 2009), Out of fear that uncontrolled association could have disastrous consequences to the system, the supreme commander Filipović issued a public order, as on November 1878, which says that no association could be formed nor start working without his permission. Kruševac, Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom , 411; Đorđe Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine (Sarajevo: Štamparija Bosanska pošta, 1930), The first associations formed in Sarajevo were the Vatrogasno društvo [Firefighters charity] (1880), Frauenverein [Ladies society] (1885), and Männergesangverein [Men s choral society] (1887). These societies were under the strict control of the regime, and due to a lack of laws on associations police regulations on public order and peace were used for these societies. Pursuant to regulations, authorities could prohibit a society for even the slightest impropriety, with the explanation that its activity poses a direct disturbance of the state order. Therefore even the associations statutes included the obligation that they would allow authorities to access to all the activities, starting from sessions, get-togethers, public parties and their programs. In the context of preparations of public performances or potential musical events, strict censorship was frequent and the events used to be prohibited due to programs that authorities did not consider proper, i.e. suitable for the given occasion. Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine, 5; Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Društva i ustanove statistički podaci. 13 Tičić, Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini, 21; Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine, According to Vedrana Tičić ( Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini, 21), Slovenski klub had a permanent singing choir, active until 1993, which is also indicated by texts in periodicals of the time. However, these claims cannot be supported by archival documents, since the available archival institutions in B&H do not have the preserved materials of the society. 14

15 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... Slovenians stationed in Sarajevo; the same applies to the party by Slovensko omizje in 1907: Last night, Sarajevo Slovenian colony, so well liked among our citizens, gathered in small premises of the Community Centre. After all, Slovenians are like closest and dearest brothers to us, by blood and language, by temperament and strivings. Their parties are well liked due to their familiar, spontaneous significance; high officials, artisans, officers all like a family. 15 The popularity of parties organized by Slovenians was even greater due to the comprehensive program conceived in line with the well-established practice of national societies of the time. Programs were typically of mixed character, made up of musical items interwoven with national elements, and shorter plays that referred to significant moments of Slovenian history. It was the case with the party by Slovensko omizje which, besides national and patriotic tunes of Slovenian origin, featured the humorous piece Berite Novice by Levstik and Kersnik. 16 Other programs of Slovensko omizje were conceived in a similar way; however, in the context of music program contents, parties organized by Slovenski klub were far more significant. Slovenski klub typically organized their events on the premises of Community Centre [Društveni dom] 17, and the events were intended exclusively for the invited and selected members of Sarajevo society. Musical repertoire was performed by the society members, and in case of extensive repertoire they also engaged soloists, who were not necessarily part of the society. Similar applied to orchestral accompaniment, and items of instrumental character were assigned to the society s tambura or orchestral ensembles, and ensembles active in Sarajevo at the time. 18 The society usually organized such parties, with somewhat richer musical programs and visiting artists, for charity purposes, and one of the most successful was the party organized on the 18th of February 1911 in the Community Centre, named Predpustno veselico. Revenue from ticket sales was intended for the school group Ćirilo i Metod, and good earnings was to be ensured by the diverse musical program interwoven with Slovenian composers works: 1. Fuček: Triglavska koračnica, music. 2. Soboj: Ouvertura, music. 3. Vilhar: Ljubičica, mixed choir. 4. Gervais: Zašto zlato, men s choir. 5. Šonc. Kar si, boš zdaj 15 [ U malim prostorijama Društvenog doma sakupila se je sinoć sarajevska slovenska kolonija, koja uživa toliko simpatija u našem gragjanstvu. Ta Slovenci su nam po krvi i jeziku, po ćudi i težnjama najbliža i najmilija braća. Njihove su zabave omiljele sa svog familijarnog, neprisiljenog značaja; visoki činovnici, obrtnici, časnici svi kao jedna obitelj. ] Anonym. Pokladna zabava Slovenskog omizja u Sarajevu, Hrvatski dnevnik, February 9, 1907, The source does not cite full details about authors. Ibid. 17 Community Centre, presently known as the National Theatre of Sarajevo, was opened on the 1st of February 1899 with a ceremony that featured the joint appearance of the Croatian Land Theatre of Zagreb and Croatian Choral Society Trebević. The opening of the Centre was an extremely important event for the cultural life of Sarajevo, which finally got a serious theatre building, constructed by contemporary standards. Community Centre was visited by well-established West-European musicians (Fritz Kreisler, František Ondřiček, Bronislaw Huberman, etc.), and its opening allowed an appropriate place for performing theatre and music pieces to many visiting theatre troupes and local choral societies. Paćuka, Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave ( ), There were not many existing instrumental ensembles in Sarajevo, since choral societies were the crucial part of performing practice. It should be noted here that the backbone of musical life consisted of amateur ensembles, both in case of choral societies and that of instrumental ensembles, which worked under their auspices. With respect to instrumental practice, the only permanent professional musical group included military bands, whose playing contributed to all significant musical events in the city; there were also a few instrumental ensembles such as Civilna muzika [Civilian Music], Salonski orkestar [Salon Orchestra] and Veteranska kapela [Veteran Chapel]. Thus, e.g., Parlour Orchestra used to appear at dancing and carnival evenings organized by Slovenski klub and typically performed Slovenian national melodies. Anonym. Eine Faschingsunterhaltung im Slovenski klub, Bosnische post, January 27, 1913, 2. 15

16 ostala, mixed choir. 6. Verdi: Trovatore, duo Miss Nina Mijić and Mr. Josip Malogorski. 7. Ritschel: Venac slovenskih pesmi, music. 19 Besides their own societies where they nourished their culture and tradition, Slovenians had a well-developed cooperation with other singing societies and instrumental ensembles in Sarajevo. A notable example is the cooperation with the Trebević Croatian singing society (1894), whose members regularly attended parties and performances by Slovenian associations, partly because some Slovenian musicians were Trebević members themselves. 20 The cooperation often went a step further, and Trebević itself tried to mark significant dates of Slovenian history and culture. This claim is illustrated by the ceremony honouring the 100 th anniversary of the birth of great Slovenian poet dr. Franc Prešern ( ), held in the hall of Community Centre on the 9th of Decembre The organization of the event, accompanied with the concert program, was aided by Trebević members, members of the Biciklistički klub Soko [Bicycling society Sokol ], as well as by a few Czechs and, of course, Slovenians.21 The entire event had a charity character, and the revenue was intended for raising a memorial to Franc Prešern in Ljubljana. In order to attract as many people as possible, the program had a declamatory-musical character 22, and was performed by members of Trebević men s and women s choir conducted by the famous Croatian composer Blagoje pl. Bersa ( ). 23 Public welcome the joint initiative of Slovenians and Trebević Croatian Choral Society, which is proven by lines published in Sarajevski list: Prešern s festivity in Trebević was celebrated on Saturday evening before the full hall of audience, who accompanied the entire schedule with a great satisfaction and lively applause. 24 The atmosphere of the event was complemented by Slovenian folk costumes worn by the event participants, as well as by a greeting dispatch sent to Trebević board by Ljubljana mayor. 25 The described examples, though few, picturesquely show the ways of Slovenian musicians involvement in the musical developments of the time. Slovenians in B&H shared the socio-cultural destiny with other immigrants, and their collective gatherings in the form of organizing Slovenian societies and associations are also an indicator of how and in what way the immigrants community on B&H capital tried to organize their socio-cultural life. Besides, the idea of association initiated by foreigners was the segment of musical life of West-European type that was first accepted by broader B&H circles as well. 19 [ 1. Fuček: Triglavska koračnica, glazba. 2. Soboj: Ouvertura, glazba. 3. Vilhar: Ljubičica, mješ. zbor. 4. Gervais: Zašto zlato, muški zbor. 5. Šonc. Kar si, boš zdaj ostala, mješ. zbor. 6. Verdi: Trovatore, duet ggjica Nina Mijić i g. Josip Malogorski. 7. Ritschel: Venac slovenskih pesmi, glazba. ] Anonym. Slovenski klub, Večernji sarajevski list, February 17, 1911, Some of the prominent Slovenian musicians in the Sarajevo musical life such as Viktor Šonc and Alojz Ričl were members of the Trebević Croatian Choral Society. Their activity will be discussed in more detail further in the paper. 21 Anonym. Stogodišnjica Prešernova, Sarajevski list, December 9, 1900, The source does not mention the program items. Ibid. 23 Blagoje Bersa served as the main choirmaster of the Trebević only for a few months, i.e. in the second half of Although he was negotiating further engagement with Trebević management, reasons of private and professional nature soon took him from B&H capital to Split. Interestingly, Bersa s appearance at the ceremony dedicated to Franc Prešern is one of few public appearances he had in Sarajevo that was noted by B&H press. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Trebević pjevačko društvo, kutija III. 24 [ Svetkovina Prešernova u Trebeviću proslavljena je u subotu na večer pred dupke punom dvoranom slušalaca, koji su sav raspored propratili velikim zadovoljstvom i živahnim pljeskanjem. ] Anonym. Iz društava, Sarajevski list, Decembre 12, 1900, Ibid. 16

17 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... Individual aspects of Slovenian musicians activity In the individual segment of activity, Slovenian musicians were somewhat less prominent compared to other immigrants groups inhabiting Bosnia and Herzegovina. The explanation could be sought in the fact that compared to Czechs, Germans or Austrians, they were a less numerous community inhabiting B&H capital. Still, their own, individual engagements revealed an equal enthusiasm and commitment to raising musical life to a higher level. Their work did not produce long-lasting results; however, it was the general destiny of individual endeavours, which were related to more serious and artistically more demanding undertakings (e.g. opening music schools, professional music performing groups, etc.). The responsibility for such a situation was borne by the unsystematic relationship of Austro-Hungary toward the institutionalized forms of musical life, rather than individuals whose activity, regardless of its scope, made up the only real picture of musical life. Actually, the set of individual endeavours was the driving force allowing the daily existence of Sarajevo musical life, without exclusive dependence on occasional visits by foreign musicians. Therefore it can be claimed that the individual aspect of Slovenian musicians activity revealed through intertwining of pedagogical, conducting and randomly composing activity made up the backbone of Sarajevo daily musical life. One of the first Slovenian names noted by available sources is the name of Alojz Ričl. 26 Ričl s activity in Bosnia and Herzegovina was first documented in 1896, when he appeared in the capacity of choirmaster of the Croatian Choral Society Majevica. 27 The society was founded in Tuzla in 1896, and Ričl is mentioned as one of its first choirmasters. It is obvious that Ričl did not remain Majevica choirmaster for a long time, since sources mention him as one of key conductors of Veteranska kapela [Veterans Chapel] 28 since As early as in 1898, he was replaced as a conductor by VIljem F. Wlassak 30, while Alojz Ričl s name is associated with the work of Civilna muzika [Civilian Music]. 31 Actually, the orchestra Civilna muzika was conducted by Ričl throughout its existence, and his committed work contributed to its recognition, and to the fact that in a short time period it became one of significant orchestras of the city of Sarajevo. The significance of the Civilna muzika was even greater because Ričl managed to attract both immigrants and local amateurs into artists ranks, which was one of the first cases of including B&H population in the developments of orchestral music-making. 26 The available sources do not provide an insight into accurate biography data except for the fact that he was an artist of Slovenian origin. Tičić, Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini, Miradet Zulić, Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2008), Veteranska kapela was founded around 1897 under the auspices of the Veteransko društvo (1896) [Veterans society] activities, as his legitimate instrumental ensemble. Chapel survived for an unexpectedly long time for the conditions of musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo, all until the beginning of First World War (1914). According to the announcement of reputable annual Bosnischer Bote of 1899, Chapel was the only professional orchestral group besides military bands. Anonym. Handelund Gewerbetreibende der Hauptstadt Sarajevo Musikkapellen, Bosnischer Bote III (1899): It is necessary to emphasise that Ričl was Majevica board member until Zulić, Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2008), Anonym. Iz društava (Mali vjesnik), Sarajevski list, Mart 13, 1898, Continuous data on the work of Civilna muzika are found in the time range between 1902 and Paćuka, Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave ( ),

18 His acquaintances and contacts with various national groups in B&H and immigrants community paved the way for the orchestra, and Civilna muzika thus performed at performances and parties of then popular singing, educational and workers associations. It is well known that the orchestra used to appear at both at parties organized by Trebević, as well as by Tipografsko društvo [Typographers Society] and the already mentioned Slovenski klub. The orchestra adjuster their repertoire depending on the occasion, and it thus included pieces of national character if it performed at national societies parties. A step ahead in the work of Civilna muzika were certainly independent concerts within elite city cafés and restaurants, such as Café Royal. 32 On these occasions, the orchestra performed Vienna melodies, couplets, pieces by European and Slav composers, as well as those by their chapel master. Actually, besides his conducting activities, Ričl occasionally tried his skill at composing. He mostly composed pieces for the Civilna muzika orchestra, in the form of popular medleys and wreaths, which were typically based on stylizing folk melodies of Croatian and Slovenian origin. Reporting on the Civilna muzika concerts, the press of the time also registered many premiers of Ričl s creations such as Karišik hrvatskih pjesama, Karišik narodnih pjesama, Potpurij hrvatskih napjeva, and Venec slovenskih pesmi. 33 Besides Alojz Ričl who, as a Civilian Music conductor, was an active participant in the concert life, Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo commit to memory another name significant for the development of musical life. It was the name of Josip Hladek Bohinjski (4 February 1879, Kranjska 7 February 1940, Maribor) 34, whose rich conducting activity in the last years of occupation had a significant impact on the improvement of musical life quality. He started his conducting career in Sarajevo as the kapellmeister of the Garrison music in He served at this position until 1918, when Austro-Hungarian Empire left the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 35 Still, when arriving to Sarajevo, Hladek certainly did not anticipate that he would stay there for as long as three decades, performing a multiple role of kapellmeister, music pedagogue and organizer of musical events. Hladek s leading of the Sarajevo garrison music was focused on emphasizing concerts of the selected music program. Due to the winds of war, Hladek s 40-member orchestra appeared on the premises of Military casino [Vojni kasino], performing pieces 32 Anonym. Werbung, Bosnische post, April 4, 1913, Anonym. Slovenski klub, 2; Anonym. Tipografsko veče s igrankom (Društvene vijesti), Sarajevski list, January 10, 1914, 2; Anonym. Hrvatsko pjevačko društvo u Sarajevu (Društveni život), Sarajevski list, December 31, 1909, 3; Anonym. Zabavno sijelo, Hrvatski dnevnik, September 4, 1906, 5; Anonym. Program današnje zabave, Hrvatski dnevnik, October 10, 1906, Josip Hladek started acquiring his music education after five completed grades of High School and three grades of Academy of Commerce. He started studying music within Philharmonic Society of Ljubljana, and continued his training in Vienna with Franz Lehar. Although he primarily worked as a military chapel master, he played the violin, and was involved in singing and music theory. He was fluent in a few languages, including Italian, German, and Croatian, and could use Czech if needed. According to the available sources, he was married to Marija Riboli until Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K138; Marica Špendal, Hladek (Chladek)-Bohinjski Josip, in Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 2 (Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1974), In his book Slavuj povrh Trebevića, Zdravko Milošević says that in the period , Josip Hladek also served as the main choir master of Croatian society Trebević. However, the available archival sources show otherwise, i.e. that it was a respectable artist of Czech origin Bogomir Kačerovský ( ) who served as Trebević choir master in the period Over the last year of occupation, the society worked with decreased capacity, and due to the horrors of the wind of war, the choir master position was alternately filled by the society members who remained in Sarajevo. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Trebević pjevačko društvo. 18

19 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... composed by the European greats such as Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Johannes Brahms, Franz Schubert, Richard Wagner, Edward Grieg and many others. Hladek also introduces appearances of orchestra with soloists into the concert practice of garrison music, whereby the role of soloist was also given to the renowned names of the time. Thus, one of successful concerts conducted by Josip Hladek was a concert that took place in Wartime cinema, with the music program that consisted of segments from Wagner s Parsifal, then Concerto for piano and orchestra in a-minor by E. Grieg, and Concerto for violin and orchestra in g-minor by Max Bruch. The role of soloist was given to August Janković (violin) and Angelo Kessissoglu (piano) who, judging by press reports, professionally performed their part of the job. 36 Besides his success in conducting, Josip Hladek showed his skill as an excelling music pedagogue. He selflessly transmitted his knowledge to pupils of the Great Grammar School, where he officially started working as a music and singing teacher in He stayed at the Grammar School until 1923, when he was transferred to Banja Luka. 37 Although his contributions to the promotion of musical life in Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo were obvious, Hladek experiences the true recognition of his career in the period between the two world wars ( ), working as a music pedagogue in the District School of Music in Sarajevo [Oblasna muzička škola Sarajevo] (1920), then as a member of the Quartet of Philharmonic association District School of Music, as well as the first conductor and accompanist in the National Theatre of Sarajevo. 38 Another Slovenian musician active during Austro-Hungarian administration in B&H was of similar likings. It was Viktor Šonc (Tomaj kraj Sežane, , Ljubljana), who proved himself as a conductor and pedagogue. After studying composition in Prague ( ) and private singing classes with the professor of Prague conservatory M. Wallerstein and professor Kotzebna in Dražgjani ( ), he went to Dresden for further training and stayed there from Then he arrived to Sarajevo, where he immediately initiated the opening of a privately-owned school of music. The school was supposed to open on the 15th September 1909 and music training included lessons in singing and piano playing. The press of the time wrote favourably about Šonc s abilities, stating that singing methods he had learned at European schools were one of the best. 40 However, what actually happened with Šonc s idea is not known, since the available sources on this initiative disappeared. Still, Viktor Šonc continued developing hid pedagogical abilities within the activity of Croatian singing society Trebević, where he worked as the main choir master in the period , when he was replaced by Bogomir Kačerovský 41. According to Trebević society rules, choir master tasks included teaching basics of singing and music theory, and Šonc continued this practice even after he left the choir master position. 36 Anonym. Drugi simfonički koncert sarajevske posadne glazbe u ratnom kinu (Sarajevske novosti), Sarajevski list, Mart 5, 1918, Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K For more details on Josip Hladek Bohinjski s activity in the period between the two world wars see: Hadžić Fatima, Muzički život Sarajeva između dva svjetska rata ( ) (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2012), Dragotin Cvetko, Viktor Šonc, in Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 3 (Zagreb; Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1977), 509; Anonym. Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru, Hrvatski dnevnik, September 1, 1909, Anonym. Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru, Anonym. B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo, Bosnischer Bote XV (1911): 382; Anonym. B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo, Bosnischer Bote XVI (1912):

20 Actually, the government annual Bosnischer Bote published the information that Šonc served as a singing commissioner in the period , which means that together with then active Trebević conductors, he was involved in the process of preparing and rehearsing music programs. 42 The listed examples of Slovenian musicians activity are certainly an indicator of the significance of immigrants individual activity in various segments of musical life. In the same time, it is the evidence that there was a strong will and desire to raise the musical life to a higher, professional level; however, the desires lacked the administrative system support which in these, as well as in many other cases, failed to come. Slovenian musicians in the role of guest artists: Case of Slovenian opera Unlike most immigrants who were tied to B&H with their job, visiting musicians came to Sarajevo in order to perform at occasional concerts. Although they stayed for too short a time to make any permanent impact, their role was obvious in terms of familiarizing masses of the Bosnian population with eminent world artists, performances and repertoires. The trademark of these events included professionalism, technical and artistic skill, and typically cherry-picked music repertoire. The visiting artists, i.e. ensembles that were characterized by excellence include the visit of Slovenian opera of Ljubljana. 43 The Opera visited Sarajevo in the first half of June 1907; and together with the visit by Opera group of Brno (1902), Italian opera of Milan (1902) and Croatian National Theatre of Osijek (1908), it was one of the highest quality musical groups that visited Sarajevo over the 40 years of Austro-Hungarian occupation. Actually, during its stay in B&H capital, Slovenian Opera performed true masterpieces of opera art, which in the theatre life was a major deviation from the usual performances of operettas, musical farces and pieces of Orpheum character. In other words, opera groups such as Slovenian Opera familiarized B&H audience with contemporary and artistically high-quality musical selections. Judging by writings in the press, public was looking forward to Slovenian Opera, and the first information on the ensemble appeared about fifteen days before the group s arrival and the visit scheduled for the 1st of June Thus, for instance, Sarajevski list 45, a renowned newspaper and public gazette of the National Government for B&H, informed the public that Slovenian Opera intends to come to Sarajevo from Osijek (Croatia), where critics praised its performances. Further, they said that there was a great interest in the visit in Sarajevo, with the comment that the public hoped for: 42 The data taken from Bosnicher Bote contradict Cvetko Dragotin s writings ( Viktor Šonc, in Muzička enciklopedija, 509), which say that after his position as a choir master in Sarajevo Šonc went to Trieste in 1911, where he served as a school principal until The present name of the institution is: Narodno gledališće Opera im Balet Ljubljana [Slovenian national theatre, opera and ballet Ljubljana]. However, the paper uses the name used by available sources, i.e. Slovenian opera of Ljubljana. 44 Anonym. Slovenska opera, Hrvatski dnevnik, May 16, 1907, Besides Sarajevski list, the Opera visit was also covered by all the other significant dailies and periodicals, whether they supported the regime or were nationally oriented. Press that published writings on the visit includes: Bosnische post, Sarajevski list, Hrvatski dnevnik i Srpska riječ. 20

21 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... beautiful musical enjoyment, and it is evident that the Slovenian group will experience a nice response by Sarajevo audience. 46 Next, periodicals reported that after a long time Sarajevo audience would have the opportunity to hear excelling opera singers, top masterpieces, which will be a rare enjoyment for the concert life. 47 Interestingly, Croatian newspapers published extremely favourable articles on the visit, euphorically inviting the public to Slovenian Opera performances: Once again we recommend to everybody to come to the theatre, since they are both artists and our blood, our brothers Slovenians. Cheers! 48 According to the original plan, Opera intended to appear at eight performances over its fifteen-day stay in B&H capital; they included top pieces such as Traviata, Rigoletto, Turbadur (G. Verdi), Lucia da Lammemoour (Gaetano Donizetti), Faust (Charles Gounod), The Jewess (Formental Halévy), Carmen (Georges Bizet) and Nikola Šubić Zrinjski (Ivan pl. Zajc) 49, while the star of the ensemble was the famous tenor and once first singer of Zagreb opera Ernesto Ritter von Camerotta. 50 Besides Camerotta, other opera soloists are listed (Maruša Skalova, M. Peršlova, Vida Kočevarjeva, Jan Zach von Zahov, Jan Ouržednik, Adolf Ranek, Julius Betetto, Rudolf Bukšek) 51, and press reports attach the a great attention, through quoting and paraphrasing clips from reviews, which had previously written about their performing abilities. Thus, for example, words of praise were used to describe opera diva Maruša Skalova, for who was said to have a clear intonation, resounding voice and dramatic expression. 52 Attention was also paid to chapel master Benišek, as well as to the entire orchestra, with the words that they were extremely successful in complementing and completing the soloists play. 53 In general, the organization of the event and ticket sales were the responsibility of the renowned city bookstore and music equipment store Albert Thier in the Franjo Josip s Street which, due to a great interest among the public decided to print the program booklets with the libretti of operas performed by the Slovenian ensemble. 54 Printing the program booklets and libretti, which abbreviated versions were published in Sarajevski list and Hrvatski dnevnik showed a clear organizers desire to bring significant musical creations in the area of opera composing closer to the broader B&H public which, on the other hand, should contribute to the audience s thorough preparation for the performances of Slovenian Opera. Expectedly, such initiatives were also supported by branches of Austro-Hungarian administration infiltrated in the activity of Sarajevski list and city printing shops owned by immigrants, since it was a way of direct promotion of the West-European musical culture. After exhaustive information in the press, Sarajevo public joyfully welcome the beginning of the Slovenian Opera of Ljubljana visit. On the stage of Community Centre, 46 [ lijepom muzikalnom uživanju, a očevidno je, da će slovenska družina naići na lijep odziv publike u Sarajevu. ] Anonym. Slovenska opera iz Ljubljane, Sarajevski list, May 31, 1907, Anonym. Slovenska opera, Hrvatski dnevnik, May 16, 1907, Anonym. Slovenska opera u Sarajevu, Hrvatski dnevnik, May 17, 1907, Anonym. Musik, Bosnische Post, May 14, 1907, Anonym. Slovenska opera, Sarajevski list, May 15, 1907, Anonym. Theater und Musik, Bosnische post, May 18, 1907, Anonym. Slovenska opera u Sarajevu, Ibid. 54 Anonym. Slovenska opera u Sarajevu, Sarajevski list, May 15, 1907, 2. 21

22 the ensemble performed in the crammed hall, and the creation selected for the first appearance was Faustus by Charles Gounod. Judging by writings in the press, the performance was extremely successful, and the author of a review in Hrvatski dnevnik states: The opening performance of Faustus was solemn and magnificent. Never before has Sarajevo experience something similar. The audience watched the scenes with their breath stopped, and tense thought (...). 55 The report also devoted a few lines to the most impressive moments of the performance, whereby Maruša Skalove s singing in the leading role of Margarit made a special impression on the author: She performed the scene with the mirror with such a skill that can be achieved only at a good school, and we thought it is impossible that we are in Sarajevo. She sings high tones calmly and with ease, strongly and beautifully. Her singing and playing were complemented by her imposing appearance, and she thus made a unique Margarit creation. 56 The opera ensemble performed the other pieces with equal success, and a great audience s interest made the ensemble to expand its repertoire and perform, besides the planned eight operas, Ksenija by Viktor Parma, The Beautiful Galatea by Franz von Suppé, Pagliacci by Ruggeiro Leoncavallo, and The Bartered Bride by Bedřich Smetana. This decision by the Slovenian Opera management certainly proved the extent of the repertoire and capacity of this opera house. Still, although most part of the visit went on without significant lapses in organization and performance, there were minor embarrassments, one of them being the surprisingly poor attendance at the performance of Leoncavallo s Pagliaccio (12 June), which was harshly criticized in Hrvatski dnevnik. The author addressed brittle words to the public considering the empty hall of the Community Centre the defeat of Sarajevo audience. 57 The unexpectedly poor attendance may have been due to the fact that this piece was performed only a few days after an incident that accompanied the performance of Zajc s opera Nikola Šubić Zrinjski. Performance of the opera Nikola Šubić Zrinjski: two versions of an event The performance of Zajc s opera masterpiece known as Nikola Šubić Zrinjski was scheduled for the 8th of June 1907; interestingly, however, this creation was the only nationally-oriented one on the repertoire of Slovenian Opera that aroused inter-national misunderstandings between Bosnia and Herzegovinian Croats and Serbs. The misunderstandings that resulted in newspaper clashes between two most significant national papers in Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo, Hrvatski dnevnik and Srpska riječ were due to preventing Serbian pupils of the Great Grammar School to buy tickets and attend the performance. The performance itself experiences no problems, and was greeted with 55 [ Svečana i veličanstvena je bila otvorna predstava Fausta. Nikada do tada nije Sarajevo doživjelo nešto slična. Sa zaustavljenim dahom u grudima, napetom mišlju pratila je publika prizore (...) ] Anonym. Slovenska opera, Hrvatski dnevnik, June 3, 1907, [ Prizor s ogledalom izvela je sa toliko umjeća, koje se postizava samo dobrom školom, e smo mislili, nije moguće da smo u Sarajevu. Visoke tonove pjeva mirno i lahko, jako i divno. Svome pjevu i svojoj igri doprinijela je impozantna njena pojava te je od Margarete stvorila kreaciju svoje vrsti. ] Ibid. 57 P. Kazalište, Hrvatski dnevnik, June 12, 1907,

23 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... the approval of B&H Croats, who expressed their satisfaction with loud applause, and with the address by the chairman of the Trebević Croatian singing society, who publicly thanked the ensemble members for their visit to Sarajevo. Then a few Trebević singers sang the Croatian anthem Lijepa naša domovino, which aroused the additional loud acclaims in the audience. 58 However, newspaper writings in Srpska riječ soon showed that the Serbian part of B&H population was seriously offended, and the intonation of articles such as Croatian Feast in Sarajevo [Hrvatsko slavlje u Sarajevu] 59 pointed to the burst of national intolerance, which Austro-Hungary had been trying to quench or at least reduce to a minimum since the first day of occupation. The degree of the seriousness of the situation resulting from a seemingly innocent event was revealed in every word: On Saturday, Slovenian opera group performed Zajc s opera Zrinjski in the Community Centre. This occasion was used by our furtimas (op.a. Croatian clericalists) to show once again who they are and what they are like. Instead of being happy because they had the opportunity to show to the others a beautiful brainchild of Croatian musicians and a glorious image from Croatian past, they used the evening for their clericalist purposes. But under whose order, whose Vefehl, did they refuse to give tickets to many Serbian pupils at the box office? 60 Besides, the article calls for a comprehensive police investigation, suspecting that the incident was staged, and that there was a possibility that the opera management had been involved in it. 61 Hrvatski dnevnik gave a sharp reply to these accusations. Fully quoting the statements of Srpska riječ, Hrvatski dnevnik said that they did not want to start newspaper correspondence, and invited all the conscientious and unblended citizens to ignore the provocations. Still, the newspaper could not totally refrain and condemned the detestable lies and accusations in an unpleasant tone, requesting the accountability of the newspaper s editor-in-chief. 62 The epilogue of the story was starting the investigation about the improper behaviour of high-school pupils from the ranks of B&H Croats. The investigation was conducted by members of the Great Grammar School management and representatives of Austro-Hungarian police. The investigation established that one of the pupils started publicly, in a challenging way stressing out his political colour, by writing in the newspaper, singing in the street and in the theatre, and that individual students had indeed prevented Serbian pupils from entering the theatre hall. 63 On top of it, the teachers assembly decided that pupils of Sarajevo Great Grammar School would be allowed to go to any future public performances, theatre and concert events only upon the approval by their headmaster. On the other hand, no Slovenian Opera s guilt or involvement in the incident was ever proved. However, upon the original request by Srpska riječ, the ensemble repeated the performance of Zajc s opera at the end of their 58 Anonym. Slovenska opera, Sarajevski list, June 12, 1907, Anonym. Domaće vijesti, Srpska riječ, May 30 (June 13), 1907, [ U subotu davana je od slovenačke operske družine u Društvenom Domu, Zajčeva opera Zrinjski. Ovu priliku upotrebiše naši furtimaši (op.a. hrvatski klerikanci), da se opet pokažu, ko su i kakvi su. Umjesto da se raduju, što bi imali priliku da drugim pokažu krasan umotvor Hrvata muzičara i jednu sjajnu sliku iz hrvatske prošlosti, oni ovu večer upotrebiše u svoje furtimaške ciljeve. Ali čijom naredbom, po čijem Vefehlu ne dadoše mnogim Srbima đacima na kasi karte? ] Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62 Anonym. Srpska riječ i obraz, Hrvatski dnevnik, June 12, 1907, Anonym. Dakle ipak!, Srpska riječ, June 5 (June 19), 1907, 3. 23

24 visit. The repeated performance of Nikola Šubić Zrinjsk took place on the 14th of June 1907, in the crammed hall of the Community Centre. 64 Interestingly, the regime-oriented papers did not publish a word about the accompanying misunderstandings of the prominently national nature. Newspapers such as Sarajevski list focused their writing on the quality of performance, describing the beauties and artistic values of Zajc s creation, and making incidental and irrelevant comments such as one about the shortage of theatre space. 65 Bosnische post reported in the same manner, and its reports addressed only the musical performance, while data on the Sarajevo pupils improprieties could not be read in this renowned paper. At the same time, this was an indicator that Austro-Hungarian regime tried to deliberately hush up writings that spurred or dealt with inter-national turmoil among B&H population. Unfortunately, this was an established phenomenon in both political and socio-cultural life of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In a sense, the deliberate pushing of the national issues to the back burner, and emphasizing the socio-political atmosphere that encouraged cultural uniformity and unity were the only way in which Austro-Hungary tried to deal with strong national currents that were shaking Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the end When viewing different aspects of Slovenian musicians activity in Sarajevo musical life, one gets the insight into the significance of their activity in the development of musical culture in these regions. Although Slovenians were a less numerous immigrant community in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the story of their road is universal, since it concisely shows the process and main players in the birth of the West-European musical culture in these regions. The process accompanied with collective and individual patterns of immigrants activity, as well as with sporadic visits by foreign artists made up the main artery of musical life. On the other hand, the visit of Slovenian Opera is the evidence of complex socio-political situation in B&H, which Austro-Hungary tried to resolve in repressive measures, which as the time unfortunately showed, were just an unsuccessful attempt of the Empire to preserve its political dominance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bibliography Archival sources Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Popis stanovništva, Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Trebević pjevačko društvo. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K138. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Društva i ustanove statistički podaci. 64 Bosnische post wrote that after Sarajevo the Opera was supposed to visit Tuzla and perform operas Faustus, Nikola Šubić Zrinjski, Trovatore and Glocken von Corneville there. Anonym. Theater und Musik, Bosnische post, June 13, 1907, Anonym. Slovenska opera, 2. 24

25 L. PAĆUKA ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS... Literature Cvetko, Dragotin. Viktor Šonc. In Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 3. Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1977, 509. Donia, Robert. Sarajevo: Biografija grada. Sarajevo: Institut za istoriju, Hadžibegović, Iljas. Postanak radničke klase u Bosni i Hercegovini i njen razvoj do godine. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, Hadžić, Fatima. Muzički život Sarajeva između dva svjetska rata ( ). PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, Kruševac, Todor. Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, Paćuka, Lana. Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave ( ). PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, Pejanović, Đorđe. Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine. Sarajevo: Štamparija Bosanska pošta, Špendal, Marica. Hladek (Chladek)-Bohinjski Josip. In Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 2. Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1974, 142. Spomenica Prve gimnazije u Sarajevu prilikom proslave 50-godišnjice ( ). Sarajevo: Državna štamparija, Tičić, Vedrana. Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini. Master thesis, University of Sarajevo, Zulić, Miradet. Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, Periodicals Editorial. Voranzeige. Bosnische post. May 15, 1907, 8. P. Kazalište. Hrvatski dnevnik. June 12, 1907, 2 3. Bosnische post. Eine Faschingsunterhaltung im Slovenski klub. January 27, 1913, 2. Bosnische Post. Musik. May 14, 1907, 4. Bosnische post. Theater und Musik. June 13, 1907, 3. Bosnische post. Theater und Musik. May 18, 1907, 3. Bosnische post. Werbung. April 4, 1913, 4. Bosnischer Bote. B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo. XV (1911): 382. Bosnischer Bote. B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo. XVI (1912): 484. Bosnischer Bote. Handel-und Gewerbetreibende der Hauptstadt Sarajevo Musikkapellen. III (1899): 214. Hrvatski dnevnik. Slovenska opera u Sarajevu. May 17, 1907, 5. Hrvatski dnevnik. Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru. September 1, 1909, 2. Hrvatski dnevnik. Pokladna zabava Slovenskog omizja u Sarajevu. February 9, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. Program današnje zabave. October 10, 1906, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. Slovenska opera. May 16, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. Slovenska opera. May 16, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. Slovenska opera. June 3, 1907,

26 Hrvatski dnevnik. Srpska riječ i obraz. June 12, 1907, 3. Hrvatski dnevnik. Zabavno sijelo. September 4, 1906, 5. Sarajevski list. Slovenska opera. May 15, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. Drugi simfonički koncert sarajevske posadne glazbe u ratnom kinu (Sarajevske novosti). Mart 5, 1918, 2. Sarajevski list. Hrvatsko pjevačko društvo u Sarajevu (Društveni život). December 31, 1909, 3. Sarajevski list. Iz društava (Mali vjesnik). Mart 13, 1898, 2. Sarajevski list. Iz društava. Decembre 12, 1900, 2. Sarajevski list. Slovenska opera iz Ljubljane. May 31, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. Slovenska opera u Sarajevu. May 15, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. Slovenska opera. June 12, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. Stogodišnjica Prešernova. December 9, 1900, 2. Sarajevski list. Tipografsko veče s igrankom (Društvene vijesti). January 10, 1914, 2. Srpska riječ. Dakle ipak! June 5 (June 18), 1907, 3. Srpska riječ. Domaće vijesti. May 30 (June 12), 1907, 3. Večernji sarajevski list. Slovenski klub. February 17, 1911, 2. POVZETEK Skupinske in posamezne dejavnosti slovenskih glasbenikov v glasbenem življenju Bosne in Hercegovine in njihovi občasni obiski te regije so bili živa slika imigrantske skupnosti, ki je bila dejavno udeležena pri razvoju zahodno-evropskih glasbenih trendov v Sarajevu, glavnem avstro-ogrskem administrativnem središču Bosne in Hercegovine. Slovenci so prišli z drugimi priseljenci v Sarajevo in v Bosno in Hercegovino v prvih letih okupacije ter se vključili v njim sicer nove kulturne in glasbene trende. S tem so neposredno prispevali k razvoju glasbenega življenja v teh regijah. Na kolektivni ravni lahko opazimo, da se je njihova dejavnost zgostila okrog slovenskih društev, kot sta bila»slovenski klub«in»slovensko omizje«, ki sta organizirala glasbene zabave in predstave z bogatim glasbenim programom, medtem ko lahko individualne vplive zaznamo zlasti na področju dirigentstva, poučevanja in občasnega skladateljskega dela. Najbolj znana imena slovenskega porekla, ki so se zapisala v glasbeno zgodovino Sarajeva, so: Alojz Ričl, Josip Hladek Bohinjski in Viktor Šonc. Ti so obenem najbolje poosebljali individualne podvige, saj je njihovo delo predstavljalo glavno oporo tedanjega mestnega glasbenega življenja. Po drugi strani pa je obisk Slovenske opere iz Ljubljane (1907) živ prikaz, kako odvisna je bila Sarajevska gledališka scena od tujih gostovanj, ki so bosansko-hercegovskemu občinstvu ponujali redko priložnost spoznati izbrane glasbene programe. Poleg tega obisk Slovenske opere ponuja bežen vpogled v kompleksnost politične realnosti Bosne in Hercegovine, ki je bila vseskozi izpostavljena mednarodnim sporom. Le te pa so posledično hudo pretresali družbeno-politično sceno. 26

27 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... UDK (497.1) DOI: /mz Katarina Tomašević Muzikološki inštitut Srbske akademije znanosti in umetnosti, Beograd Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade On the Paths of Béla Bartók s Modernism Followers and Companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević Na sledi sledilcem in sopotnikom modernizma Béle Bartóka: Josip Slavenski in Marko Tajčević Prejeto: 16. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: Béla Bartók, Josip Slavenski, Marko Tajčević, glasbeni modernizem, Balkan IZVLEČEK Poglavitni namen tega prispevka je ponovna preučitev modalnosti vpliva skladatelja Béle Bartóka v prvi polovici 20. stoletja na najbolj razširjen,»nacionalno usmerjen slog«v nekdanji Jugoslaviji, pri čemer sta obravnava dva Bartókova mlajša sopotnika skladatelja Josip Slavenski ( ) in Marko Tajčević ( ), pomembna predstavnika evropskega medvojnega glasbenega modernizma. Received: 16th October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: Béla Bartók, Josip Slavenski, Marko Tajčević, musical modernism, the Balkans ABSTRACT The main aim of this paper is to re-examine the modalities of Béla Bartók s influence as a composer during the first half of the 20 th century to the main, dominantly nationally oriented style in the former Yugoslavia, focusing on two of Bartók s somewhat younger contemporaries the composers Josip Slavenski ( ) and Marko Tajčević ( ), prominent representatives of European interwar musical modernism. 27

28 On the paths of Béla Bartók s modernism Followers and companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević 1 To be able to work, one must have a zest for life, i.e. a keen interest in the living universe. One has to be filled with enthusiasm for the Trinity of Nature, Art and Science. Bartók Béla There is no doubt that the development of art music and music scholarship, particularly ethnomusicological, in the former Yugoslavia(s), 2 were strongly marked by the echoes of the complete activities and creative achievements of Béla Bartók ( ). The main aim of this paper is to re-examine and discuss the modalities of Bartók s influence as a composer during the first half of the 20 th century, focusing on two of Bartók s somewhat younger contemporaries the composers Josip Slavenski ( ) and Marko Tajčević ( ). 3 Their creative contributions to the dominant, nationally orientated stream in interwar period can be considered proportional to those realised by Bartók in the Hungarian musical culture. In addition to shifting the stylistic horizons towards the areas of modernism, the achievements of Slavenski and Tajčević allowed Yugoslav music, as an integral part of the Balkan region, to step out of the local and into the European musical scene and to be recognised and highly esteemed within the family of the so-called modern national schools of their time. Perhaps even more importantly, encouraged by Bartók s new and fresh anti-romantic approach to folklore, both Slavenski and Tajčević enriched the musical palette of the then modern world with new colours, rhythms, harmonies, agogics and, above all, specifically anti-classical forms, thereby, following on from Bartók s interests, opening the door for the musical world of the Balkans to be permanently, to this day, recognised as one of the most exciting and colourful musical territories on the planet. 1 This article was written as part of the project Serbian musical identities within local and global framework: traditions, changes, challenges (No ) funded by the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technical Development. 2 We have in mind Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ( ), Kingdom of Yugoslavia ( ) and Socialistic Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( ). 3 Both Slavenski and Tajčević belong to the music histories of former Yugoslavia(s). However, since it was neither planned, nor possible that the leading music historians of the former SFR Yugoslavia create or try to (re-)construct one unique history of Yugoslav music, the place of the two prominent composers of their times remained on the unstable cross-roads of the separate Serbian and Croatian music histories. At first glance, Slavenski s starting position was more comfortable, since the both sides have showed a great interest in appropriation of composer s achievements; later on, Slavenski s case proved to be more difficult and complexed. See Jim Samson, Music in the Balkans (Leiden Boston: Brill, 2013) [Chapter: Serbo-Croat, sub-chapter: Who owns Slavenski], On the other hand, example of Marko Tajčević as a Serb born in Austro-Hungary, can serve as the best example why music histories should not be written (only) from the ethnical perspectives; Tajčević s overall fruitful activities and remarkable opus realized in the former Yugoslav (today Croatia s capital) city of Zagreb before 1940, when he finally decided to move to Belgrade, have not been recognized at all in the first most prominent history of Croatian music by Josip Andreis, Razvoj muzičke umjetnosti u Hrvatskoj, in: Andreis Cvetko Djurić-Klajn, Historijski razvoj muzičke kulture u Jugoslaviji (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1962); See also, for example, Katarina Tomašević, Duh vremena u delima i delatnostima Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića, in Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], ed. Dejan Despić (Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, 2004), 5. 28

29 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... One of the aims of this paper is to bring to mind numerous forgotten, very little known or insufficiently researched shared moments, which most intimately link the three composers artistic biographies as well as the strategies, poetic and aesthetic constants in their opuses. 4 Completely justifiably, without the name of Béla Bartók, a respectable review of the 20th century s history of music cannot be conceived. 5 We are witnessing, however, a situation where some of the leading historical reviews of international importance, designed with the pretension of being the most thorough and most ambitious in terms of comprehensiveness, 6 have marginalised or completely disregarded entire regions of the European musical arena and left as white areas of the history of music large territories of the creative work of many renowned and, even in the not so distant past, internationally highly acclaimed composers of the European Southeast. With regard to the Serbian, Croatian and Yugoslav music of the first half of the 20th century, these composers are not only Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević, whose work in the orbit of Bartók s modernism will be the main topic of this discussion, but also key representatives of the previous generation of Serbian composers: Petar Konjović ( ), Miloje Milojević ( ) and Stevan Hristić ( ), to mention here only the most prominent of the epoch of early modernism; their works had already in the their lifetime experienced not only the highest acknowledgement in their country, but also considerable recognition abroad. With rare and, subsequently, all the more significant exceptions such as, for example, the recently published book Music in the Balkans by Jim Samson (2013), dedicated on the whole to the traditional, art and popular music(s) of the Balkans, 7 the achievements of the key composers from the former Yugoslavia still, most commonly, escape the attention of both contemporary western music historiography, and the comparative scholarly studies within the area of research into the musical identity of modern Europe. 8 Consequently, this paper has opted to first address some undeniably interesting data from the early 1920s, which will take us directly to the main stream of the story of Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević as followers and companions of Béla Bartók on the path of European musical modernism. 4 This article emerged from my much shorter and differentely conceived report Modalities of Béla Bartók s Influence on the Serbian Music in the first half of the 20 th Century, presented on the conference Bartok s Orbit, Budapest, March See Richard, Taruskin, Why You Cannot Leave Bartók Out, Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae T. 47, Fasc. 3/4 [Bartók s Orbit. The Context and Sphere of Influence of His Work. Proceedings of the International Conference held by the Bartók Archives, Budapest ( March 2006). Part I (Sept., 2006)] 2006: See, for example, Nicolas Cook and A. Pople, The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2004) and Richard, Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music (Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2009, 2 nd ed. 2010). 7 Samson, Music in the Balkans. 8 Regarding the problems related to the incidence and representation of the so-called small musical cultures in the general western histories of music, encyclopedic and lexicographic editions, see, e.g.: Melita Milin, General Histories of Music and the Place of European Periphery, Музикологија [Musicology] 1 (2001): , Katarina Tomašević, Musical Modernism at Periphery? Serbian Music of the First Half of the Twentieth Century, in Rethinking Musical Modernism, eds. Dejan Despić and Melita Milin (Belgrade: SASA and Instititute of Musicology SASA, 2008), and Melita Milin, The Place of Small Musical Cultures in Reference Books, in Music s intellectual history, eds. Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mckenzie (New York: RILM Intellectual Centre and The City University of New York, 2009),

30 The first story. Josip Slavenski It is 1930, the time immediately after the completion of the New Music Festival in Berlin, and the witness-narrator is the eminent Austrian musicologist Alfred Einstein ( ). Summing up the impressions of the previous few years of the Festival, Einstein notes: The year of 1924 was the year of the discovery of Josip Slavenski. 9 It was at the Fourth Donaueschingen Chamber Music Festival (Viertes Danaueschinger Kammermusikfest, July), when Slavenski s First String Quartet, having gone through a gruelling selection from 250 works, was superbly executed in an interpretation by the Prague Zika Quartet (Zika/ Czechoslovak/ Prague Quartet). It should be mentioned that in the same year of 1924, besides Slavenski s Quartet, the programme of the same festival also included performances of compositions by Erwin Schulhoff ( ), Anton Webern ( ) and Arnold Schoenberg ( ), among others. This was the first international success of Josip Slavenski, opening the door to the Schott publishing house from Mainz, which at that time also acquired exclusive rights to print his works. 10 For the main topic, another fact, also from the late 1920s, further points to his success. According to airtime statistics regarding contemporary music broadcast on German radio, published in the journal Melos (Berlin, ), 11 during October 1929, of a total of 157 hours of broadcast music, most time, 1h 50min, was occupied by the works of Paul Hindemith ( ). They were followed by the compositions of Igor Stravinsky ( ), with 1h 45min, Arnold Schoenberg, with 1h 40min and Béla Bartók, with 1h 15min, while the next position, with a total of 1h 5min, was shared between Sergei Prokofiev ( ) and the key protagonist of this story, Josip Slavenski. In the same year, the music of Zoltán Kodály ( ), Bartók s closest associate and a prominent representative of Hungarian music of the time, was given 40 minutes of airtime on German radio stations. 12 Who, then, was Josip Slavenski, the composer who, for a moment, lit up the musical sky of Europe? 13 Although many readers of Muzikološki zbornik are entirely familiar 9 Alfred Einstein, Festival Neue Musik, Berliner Tagblatt, 19 June 1930, according to Eva Sedak, Josip Štolcer Slavenski, skladatelj prijelaza. Svezak prvi (Zagreb: Muzičko informativni centar Koncertne direkcije Zagreb Muzikološki zavod Muzičke akademije u Zagrebu, 1984), In the Schott publications, a total of 33 works by Josip Slavenski appeared 12 instrumental and 21 choral. 11 See the RIPM [Retrospective Index to Music Periodicals ( )] database. Accessed 16 October, 2015, org/?page=journalinfo&abb=mel. 12 Taken from Melos, the news was also published by the Belgrade journal Muzički glasnik [Musical Herald] (November December 1931). According to Sedak, Josip Štolcer Slavenski, The life and work of Josip Slavenski was the subject of a detailed study of the musicology of the former Yugoslavia. For an exhaustive bibliography of Slavenski up to 1984, see Sedak, Ibid., After the break-up of the SFRY, his work still attracts the equal attention of musicologists in both Croatia and Serbia. See, e.g., Eva Sedak, Nationale Musik oder die Konstruktion des Nationalen als Musik am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts, in Kompositorische und soziokulturelle Aspekte der Musikgeschichte zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa. Konferenzbericht, Leipzig 2002, eds. Helmut Loos and Stefan Keym, (Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag, 2004), The results of a more recent research published in Belgrade, see, e.g., in the collection of texts Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba [Cyrillic], ed. Mirjana Živković (Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd Muzikološki institut SANU SOKOJ MIC, 2006). About Slavenski s contribution to the history of Serbian interwar music see in my book: Katarina Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada. O dijalogu tradicionalnog i modernog u srpskoj muzici ( ) (Beograd Novi Sad: Muzikološki institut SANU Matica srpska, 2009), e.g ; 153, , , See also Danijela Špirić-Beard, Border Bridge Crossroads: the Construction of Yugoslav Identity in Music ( ) and the Case of Josip Štolcer Slavenski: PhD diss. (Cardiff University, 2012). Considerable attention was also devoted to Slavenski by Jim Samson in the aforementioned book Music in the Balkans,

31 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... with the answer to this question, regarding its function in the main topic, the choice of data from the composer s early biography will be addressed in brief. Ten years younger than Bartók, Josip (Štolcer) Slavenski was born in northern Croatia, in the region of Medjimurje, in Čakovec, in From his father, a local baker, he inherited an exceptional gift for music, and from his mother, whom he described as a living music archive, he acquired a deep sense for the Medjimurje and, generally, the traditional music of the Balkans. In the beginning of association with music, Slavenski was an autodidact; the richness of the folklore of his homeland left in him the deepest mark, as he was already from his early youth fascinated with the sounds of church bells and aliquot tones. Only when he was sixteen, did Slavenski acquire his first, classical knowledge of music. In Varaždin, where he was schooled, Slavenski fervently studied the Well-tempered Clavier (Das Wohltemperierte Klavier) by J. S. Bach ( ) and Beethoven s ( ) piano sonatas. For the young, ambitious musician, being educated in Budapest was crucial, and it was here that he attended the Conservatory for two and a half years, between 1913 and During his first year he studied harmony and counterpoint with Zoltán Kodály. The recorded testimonies show that the professor immediately recognised the great talent and passionate nature of the student from Medjimurje. According to Lajos Kiss, Kodály used to say that Slavenski was full of enthusiasm and a desire for more knowledge, and thus in addition to compulsory tasks, ( ) he produced numerous canons of every kind. 14 Throughout his second and third year, Slavenski studied counterpoint and musical forms with Victor Herzfeld, Sziklosz taught him instrumentation, score-reading and acoustics, and Géza Molnár aesthetics and history of music. World War I marked a temporary suspension of schooling for the remarkable student: he spent the next two years on the frontline of the war. Josip Slavenski would reminisce about his Budapest studies with reverence. According to him, the significance of this incomplete three years of studying was invaluable, especially with regard to mastering the techniques of counterpoint and acquiring knowledge of acoustics. 15 In Budapest he had already developed a particular affinity towards these fields, since at that time he, in a similar way to Bartók, determined his future lifelong fascination and preoccupation with numbers, proportions and the golden ratio, as the common denominators of nature, science, art in general, and music in particular, which collectively, in the case of Slavenski, subsequently resulted in his attempts to establish the theory of astroacoustics. 16 What further drew Slavenski the modernist closer to Bartók was an inclination toward experimenting and the incessant conquering of new sound-territories. It was Bartók himself who, in 1911, with his piano piece Allegro barbaro, made the first revolutionary, anti-romantic step in that direction, announcing an entire stream of 14 Milana Slavenski, Josip (Beograd: Muzička škola Josip Slavenski SOKOJ MIC, 2006), For more details on Slavenski s study years in Budapest, see Slavenski, Josip, More on this topic can be seen in a very interesting and noteworthy article by Vlastimir Peričić, Josip Slavenski i njegova astroakustika, Međimurje 7 (1985): [The same article was also published in German language, in Musiktheorie, 3, Heft. I (1988): 55 70]. 31

32 composers modern interpretations of the spirit of Balkan music. Slavenski had already joined him on this path with his works as a student in Budapest the piano pieces which represent the first, earliest examples of polytonality and the employment of sharp dissonances in Yugoslav music. What was, however, crucial for the subsequent creative identity of Josip Slavenski was the close collaboration with Kodály and Bartók in their ethnomusicological work. Despite the fact that Bartók never taught Slavenski (at that time, Bartók was the head of the Piano Department), it can be assumed that the two of them had already met at the very beginning of Slavenski s studies at the Conservatory. This is testified to by an interesting anecdote that Slavenski, many years later, would gladly retell to his students. During his first year of attending the course of harmony, Professor Kodály never ceased to wonder why his otherwise talented and diligent student persistently and stubbornly harmonised a given melody in a minor tonality, using B flat instead of B. The student s response that he preferred it in such way, i.e. that it was more beautiful like that, did not convince the professor, who subsequently complained to his colleague Bartók on one occasion. In solving this riddle, Bartók exhibited profound intuition and perspicacity, asking his student to sing a few songs from his native region, Medjimurje. In these tunes, which were etched in Slavenski s musical memory and consciousness from his earliest childhood, Bartók found his answer and joyfully exclaimed Eureka! It was the characteristic B from the mixolydian mode, typical of melodies from Medjimurje, which drew Slavenski toward the so-called erroneous harmonisation. 17 From that point on, Bartók took an increased personal interest in the gifted student. Aware of the destitution he was fighting against, he invited Slavenski to participate in the ethnomusicological work in exchange for a modest payment. The student was entrusted with the transcription of Kodály s and Bartók s melographic notations into clean copies. Having thus been in immediate contact not only with both of the researchers, but also with the material from the field, Slavenski would later often say that he had never in his life learnt more about folklore than from listening to Kodály s and Bartók s comments and discussions. Also, the foundation of his future, creative attitude to folklore and traditional music was gradually formed directly under the influence of Bartók. I had the most direct access possible to his methods of research, he emphasised many times. 18 His immediate proximity to the leading figures of Hungarian modernism completely determined the future orientation of Josip Slavenski: in Kodály s and Bartók s 17 See Slavenski, Josip, According to the recollections of Milana Slavenski, although the young student from Medjimurje had, in fact, respect for both Kodály and Bartók and their unquestionably scholarly and artistic pursuit of truth, he felt here and there, and not overly seldom, that they do not manage to consistently and utterly overcome their, perhaps even unconscious, but deep-rooted sense of national supremacy, when in the folklore of their neighbours, of subordinate Medjimurje in particular, see and underscore the primacy and predominance of the Hungarian influence. This is why his patriotic Medjimurje heart suffers and rebels. (Slavenski, Josip, 47). The patriotic indignation and revolt would, in Slavenski, reach its zenith several decades later, following the arrival in Belgrade of a copy of Bartók-Lord s book Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs (1951). For further details on the subject, see Sanja Radinović, Stanislav Vinaver, Ježef Debreceni, Josip Slavenski i Bela Bartok u etnomuzikološkom diskursu (ili: o mogućim posledicama jedne stare polemike), in Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, ed. Mirjana Živković, Concerning the marginalia of the renowned Serbian ethnomusicologist Miodrag Vasiljević, noted on the pages of the Serbian translation of Bartók-Lord s study, see Jelena Jovanović, Marginalije Miodraga Vasiljevića o studiji Bele Bartoka Morfologija srpsko-hrvatskih narodnih melodija, [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 6 (2006):

33 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... music, or, possibly, midway between their individual musical expressions, Slavenski found the key to his own creative path. Having spent two years on the frontline of the war, in 1921, Slavenski resumed his studies in Prague, at the Department of Composition, under Josef Suk ( ) and Vítězslav Novák ( ). In the Czech capital in those years ( ), at the concerts of the International Society for Contemporary Music, he could become acquainted with the latest avant-garde trends of contemporary music and of the Second Viennese School. However, like Bartók, having neither the inclination nor an understanding for avant-garde projects of deconstructing tradition, in Prague, Slavenski devoted himself to the study of the musical past, primarily of the masters of polyphony, form and harmony. At that time, Slavenski noted my best friends were Palestrina ( ), Bach and Beethoven ; 19 in the same way, these masters played their part as the greatest teachers and role models in Bartók s evolution as well. From the more recent past, both of them were drawn most to Debussy ( ), whose innovative solutions related to harmonic language later led them towards the areas of modality, then bi- and polymodality, as well as to a markedly colouristic treatment of harmony and orchestration. The first major international success of Josip Slavenski was the aforementioned First String Quartet from However, despite the accolades gained abroad, for many reasons it seemed as if Slavenski was not welcome in Zagreb, where he initially planned to settle after his studies and start a professional career. The musical world [of Zagreb], having originated from higher social strata and having been brought up on classics, ( ) looked down on Josip s Medjimurje plebeity, as Milena, Slavenski s life partner, noted in her memoirs. 20 Still, even more than that, an obstacle to the acceptance of Slavenski in Zagreb his conspicuously modern, impulsive researcher s attitude towards folklore, which was at odds with the moderate, dominant streams of the Croatian musical Moderna at the beginning of the third decade. Unaccepted within the academic circles of Zagreb, in 1926, Slavenski permanently settled in Belgrade, from that time joining completely the trends of Serbian music as part of the Yugoslav region. It is necessary, however, to underline that Josip Slavenski, an otherwise leftist at heart, by his intimate orientation was, above all, a Yugoslav and a humanist. For him, music was the highest religion, a golden bridge to the brotherhood of all people, which would later, in the mid-1930s, be testified to most convincingly by his inspired and famed cantata Symphony of the Orient [Symphony of the Orient], or Religiophony [Religiofonija] (1934). A further identified instance of the converging poetics of Bartók and Slavenski occurred at the time when Slavenski, during his sojourn in Paris in 1925, found himself in the wider circle of the Zenitists, the avant-garde artists from Yugoslavia, who, similar to the Dadaists and Futurists, maintained the belief that the old world of Western European culture was completely worn-out, having no capacity to further restore itself. The Zenitists opposed the idea of the Europeanisation of the so-called small nations in the Balkans with an idea and programme for the Balkanisation of Europe. Josip 19 Slavenski, Josip, Ibid.,

34 Slavenski was not nearly as radical as this movement s leading poets and writers. 21 Pursuing, in a creative sense, the concept and spirit of Bartók s Allegro barbaro, but also recognising in the rustic, rural, archaic layers of folklore the most fertile seeds for the transformational potential of contemporary music towards a new and authentic sonority and aesthetic, at that time Slavenski already found himself in the same field of ideas cherished by the modern national schools of the first half of the 20 th century, out of which emerged the achievements of Stravinsky and Prokofiev (from the so-called Russian period ), Leoš Janáček ( ), Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók himself. 22 The closest connection to Bartók is perhaps associated with Slavenski s inclination towards polyphonic forms and an archaised expression. Convincing confirmations of the closeness of certain compositional procédés of Bartók and Slavenski could be provided by numerous examples, of which, on this occasion, only two characteristics are highlighted. These are the final movements of Bartók s Fourth String Quartet (1928) and Slavenski s Second Lyric Quartet (1928), both composed in the form of a fugue, and two symphonic dances Bartók s Hungarian Peasant Songs (1933) and the closing Bulgarian Dance of Slavenski s Balkanophony suite (1927). The suite Balkanophony, on this occasion, also deserves closer attention. Striving for an integral representation of Balkan music, Slavenski realised the suite in eight movements, throughout which the genres of dance and song alternate: 1. Serbian Dance; 2. Albanian Song; 3. Turkish Dance; 4. Greek Song; 5. Romanian Dance; 6. My Song; 7. Bulgarian Dance. Thanks to the composer s publisher Schott, the score aroused the interest of the renowned conductor Erich Kleiber ( ), who also quickly ensured the Balkanophony s world premiere. Under the baton of Kleiber, Slavenski s suite was very successfully premiered by the members of the Belgrade and Zagreb Philharmonic, at the Under the Linden Trees theatre in Berlin ( Theater unter den linden ), on 25 January Thereafter, Balkanophony, with a total of 82 foreign performances, triumphed across Europe and the world: with interpretations by the greatest conductors of the time, it was performed in Buenos Aires (Kleiber), again in Berlin (Walter), Athens (Mitropoulos), Wiesbaden (Bölke), Munich, Warsaw, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Prague, in Russia, Copenhagen, Paris, London, etc. 23 Completing the picture with regard to the points of intersection between the artistic biographies and composers poetics of Bartók and Slavenski, a few key moments 21 On Slavenski s connections with the Zenitist movement, see, e.g.: Sanja Grujić, Veze Josipa Slavenskog sa zenitističkim pokretom, Međimurje 4 (1983): 53 63; Melita Milin, Tonovi naricanja, melanholije i divljine zenitistička pobuna i muzika, [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): ; Katarina Tomašević, Istok-Zapad u polemičkom kontekstu srpske muzike, [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5: ; Slavenski, Josip, 71 74; Irina Subotić, Two Self-Portraits of Josip Slavenski, New Sound [Novi zvuk] 33 (2009): See the assessment of Josip Slavenski s position within the circle of the aforementioned composers in a noteworthy article by Bojan Bujić, Daleki svijet muzikom dokučen, Izraz VII/11 (1963): For more details with regard to the international performances and the reception of Balkanophony see, e.g.: Roksanda Pejović, Prilog monografiji Josipa Slavenskog. Mišljenja kritičara o njegovim kompozicijama u vremenu od godine, Zvuk 3 (1981): 51 58; Ana Kara-Pešić, Prepiska Josipa Slavenskog: odjeci kompozitorovih dela u inostranstvu, [Cyrillic] Novi zvuk [New Sound] 15 (2000): ; Tatjana Marković, Internacionalna delatnost Josipa Slavenskog u svetlu njegove korespondencije, in Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, op. cit., For one of the most relevant contemporary musicological insights into the cycle, see Samson, Music in the Balkans,

35 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... which firmly position both of these creators in the field of modernism will now succinctly be indicated. Let us start with Bartók s famous words, cited in the motto of this text. Like Bartók, Josip Slavenski also possessed a zest for life and the seed of an ever conscious, inquisitive, creative quest for the underlying universal principals of Nature, Science and Art. 24 Being, like Bartók, a great lover of spending time in nature, Slavenski was an avid mountaineer and an amateur astronomer, a true modern Pythagorean, equally immersed in both the micro-physical world of atoms and the periodic system of the elements, as well as the macro-world of the cosmos and its harmony. Believing, as did Bartók, in the uniqueness of the elements upon which the entire universe rests, he tirelessly sought the meaning of musical aesthetics in forms that have not yet been corrupted by the Western man s hand. 25 Resembling Bartók in temperament, in whom tenderness and passion coexisted equally, Slavenski was a master of lyrical expression and of warm chanting tunes, but also, in the same way, exhibited an affinity for vehement, robust dancing rhythms, at times achieving a musical expression of pronounced rudimentary force. In the process of shaping his individual musical speech, Slavenski, like Bartók, in works inspired by folklore, strived to achieve a synthesis of a seemingly barbaric primitivism and the so-called rational constructivism. 26 Deeply interested in the phenomenon of pure, untainted folklore, as was Bartók, he confined himself neither to the region of his native Medjimurje, nor to the Balkans, as his wider musical homeland. Similarly to Bartók, he travelled the whole world as a result of music, realising, for example, in the Symphony of the Orient, fruitful creative dialogues with Arabic, Turkish, Jewish and Indian musical traditions. Like Bartók, he essentially believed that true progress in music can be achieved only with the new synthesis of western and eastern traditions. 27 In light of this, it is therefore not a coincidence in the least that Bach, Beethoven and Debussy were shared role models of both composers. 28 Nevertheless, the manner in which Bartók treated folk melodies was most likely the main guiding force for Josip Slavenski. Not infrequently would they both quote a tune in its original form, and would not vary it in succeeding occurrences. Instead, they would intervene on the periphery ; unaltered, the tune would be repeated a number of times, which would ultimately result in an increase in tension, until the climax at the very end of the composition, or its segment. Comparative analysis of their mutual, typically modernistic compositional procedures identifies a few additional significant characteristics: these are monothematic thinking, an abundant and diverse 24 On the reflections of Bartók s relationship with nature in his creative poetics, see Maria Anna Harley, Natura naturans, natura naturata and Bartok s Nature Music Idiom, Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice, T. 36, Fasc. 3 4 [Proceedings of the International Bartok Colloquium, Szombathely, July 3 5, Part I] (1995): A fragment of Slavenski s response to the questions posed to contemporary Yugoslav composers in the journal Muzika [Music], in 1928, is paraphrased here; see Anketa o nacionalnom muzičkom stilu, [A survey on the national music style] [Cyrillic] Muzika, I/5 6 (1928): Ibid. 27 Anketa..., 158; see also Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada, Bartók s assessment of Debussy s music and its reflections on Bartók s works is convincingly written about by László Vikárius, Modell ès inspiráció Bartók zenei gondolkodásában. A hatás jelenségének értelmezéséhez [Model and inspiration in Bartók s musical thinking: toward the interpretation of the phenomenon of influence] (Pécs: Ars Longa Jelenkor Kiadó, 1999); see also a more detailed account of Vikárius s book, written by Klára Мóricz, The Anxiety of Influence and Comfort of Style, Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice T. 40, Fasc. 4 (1999):

36 use of polyphonic, contrapuntal techniques, as well as the harmonic language, often grounded in modality and the pentatonic. To demonstrate each of the aforementioned characteristics would require a separate study. Consequently, the focus here is on one unusual circumstance, which also, in a specific way reveals the relatedness between Bartók and Slavenski. Despite everything that has thus far been discussed, Josip Slavenski would, actually, vigorously and briskly decline to make any comments on the possible influence Bartók had on his evolutionary path as a composer. And not only Bartók s influence, but anyone else s as well! Even of himself, he would rather refer to as an autodidact, asserting that everything new that his music might possibly have brought, he learnt from the very folklore, and not from the music of others. 29 Thus, he once again stood shoulder to shoulder with his great Hungarian contemporary, who himself, as László Vikárius convincingly and inspiringly wrote, by attempting to escape his personal anxiety of possible visible influences, found in folklore not only his psychological refuge, but also the most powerful ally for concealing the traces of inspiration that he would find, in different stages of his work, in the models of the art music of both his predecessors as well as his contemporaries. 30 The second story. Marko Tajčević In contrast to Slavenski, Marko Tajčević, a dedicated supporter of the national idea in music and a great admirer of the legacy of Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac ( ) the founder of Serbian musical Romanticism, never felt the need to conceal the origin of the initial impulse which directed him toward the path on which he would win recognition as one of the most prominent representatives of the interwar Yugoslav and European musical modernism. Tajčević was only twenty-five when in Zagreb, where he lived and worked at the time, he heard Bartók s music for the first time at a concert in 1925, and somehow managed to obtain the scores for the piano compositions. The first time I was leafing through Bartók s works, Tajčević openly admitted, I was astonished. I felt something special, the rebirth of novelty in music and that absorbed me instantly. 31 The first powerful creative echo of his fascination with Bartók soon occurred in Tajčević, resulting, in 1926, in the creation of the piano cycle Seven Balkan Dances [Sedam balkanskih igara]. The subsequent recognition of this youthful accomplishment of Marko Tajčević convincingly confirmed that the cycle was a true masterpiece, one of those rare and, therefore, quite extraordinary, crucial achievements that have the power to divert dominant trends of national music toward new, hitherto unexplored and unconquered sound-territories. Along with the works of Josip Slavenski, the Seven Balkan Dances by Marko Tajčević are considered not only the most indicative accomplishments of the national 29 Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada, Cf. Móricz, The Anxiety of Influence, Dragoslav Adamović, Razgovori sa savremenicima. Ko je na vas presudno uticao i zašto? [Cyrillic] (Beograd: Privredna štampa, 1983),

37 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... musical modernism, but also among the most successful representatives of the contemporary musical views of the Balkans in the first half of the 20th century. In musicology and music-theory literature, it has already been established that there is a wide range of relatedness between Tajčević s Dances and Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm, with which Bartók s Mikrokosmos concludes. 32 Obvious analogies can easily be discerned in other examples as well, by comparing, for instance, Bagpipe Music (Mikrokosmos, No. 136) with the first dance of Tajčević s cycle. Similarly to Slavenski s Balkanophony, Tajčević s Seven Balkan Dances achieved great international success: they found their way into the repertoire of Artur Rubinstein, Ignaz Friedman, Nikolai Orlov, Kendall Taylor, and others. The renowned violinist Jascha Heifetz performed them worldwide, adapted for violin and piano, 33 whereas the eminent German pianist Walter Georgii ranked them alongside top-class Eastern European music, which includes the piano suite from Stravinsky s Petrushka, Czech Dances by Bohuslav Martinů ( ), Romanian Dances and Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm by Béla Bartók. (...) A rich burning dance rhythm and a full-blooded musical tissue give this opus an elemental power, Georgii wrote in There is no doubt that Georgii rightly acknowledged Tajčević s Dances in the same sphere in which the Balkan segment of Bartók s opus was realised. This innovative picture of what were, up to that point, unexplored and unfamiliar musical soundscapes of the Balkans, as a zone of intersecting and permeating influences coming from the East and West, North and South, echoed as a real challenge to the musical world of the European West. That the chosen path, sensed in the aura of Bartók s modernism, was right, Slavenski and Tajčević received confirmation with the exceptionally favourable international reception of Balkanophony and Seven Balkan Dances, the compositions which widely open the way for the integration of the than Yugoslav music onto the world s stage. In the coda of this paper, the following should be noted: although Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević, as composers, emerged from the very orbit of Béla Bartók, they did not, however, remain as mere satellites of the Hungarian master, but equal to him, as followers and companions, they participated in the exciting modernistic adventure of creating a new and fresh, rich, colourful and beautiful musical universe, in which Balkan and Eastern European folkloric traditions experienced, in a Bakhtinian sense, a celebration of their rebirth. 32 For a meticulous comparative analysis of the compositions, illustrated with score examples, see the article by Anica Sabo, Bela Bartok Marko Tajčević, in Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], ed. Dejan Despić (Beograd: SANU, 2004), Vlastimir Peričić, Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji (Beograd: Prosveta, s.a.), Walter Georgii, Klaviermusik (Zürich: Atlantis Verlag, 1950), according to Dejan Despić, Marko Tajčević (Beograd: Udruženje kompozitora Srbije, 1972). 37

38 Bibliography Adamović, Dragoslav. Razgovori sa savremenicima. Ko je na vas presudno uticao i zašto? [Cyrillic] Beograd: Privredna štampa, Andreis, Josip. Razvoj muzičke umjetnosti u Hrvatskoj. In Andreis Cvetko Djurić- -Klajn, Historijski razvoj muzičke kulture u Jugoslaviji. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, Anketa o nacionalnom muzičkom stilu. [Cyrillic] Muzika, I/5 6 (1928): Bartók, Béla and Lord, Albert. Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs. Text and Transcriptions of Seventy-Five Folk Songs from the Milman Parry Collection and a Morphology of Serbo-Croatian Folk Melodies. New York: Columbia University Press, Bujić, Bojan. Daleki svijet muzikom dokučen. Izraz VII/11 (1963): Despić, Dejan. Marko Tajčević. Beograd: Udruženje kompozitora Srbije, Georgii, Walter. Klaviermusik. Zürich: Atlantis Verlag, Grujić, Sanja. Veze Josipa Slavenskog sa zenitističkim pokretom. Međimurje 4 (1983): Einstein, Alfred. Festival Neue Musik. Berliner Tagblatt, June 19, Harley, Maria Anna. Natura naturans, natura naturata and Bartok s Nature Music Idiom. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice [Proceedings of the International Bartok Colloquium, Szombathely, July 3 5, Part I] T. 36, Fasc. 3 4 (1995): Jelena, Jovanović, Marginalije Miodraga Vasiljevića o studiji Bele Bartoka Morfologija srpsko-hrvatskih narodnih melodija. [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 6 (2006): Kara-Pešić, Ana. Prepiska Josipa Slavenskog: odjeci kompozitorovih dela u inostranstvu. [Cyrillic] Novi zvuk [New Sound] 15 (2000): Marković, Tatjana. Internacionalna delatnost Josipa Slavenskog u svetlu njegove korespondencije. In Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, [Cyrillic] edited by Mirjana Živković, Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd Muzikološki institut SANU SOKOJ MIC, [Melos] RIPM. Accessed 16 October, ABB=MEL. Milin, Melita. General Histories of Music and the Place of European Periphery. Музикологија [Musicology] 1 (2001): Milin, Melita. Tonovi naricanja, melanholije i divljine zenitistička pobuna i muzika. [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): Milin, Melita. The Place of Small Musical Cultures in Reference Books. In Music s intellectual history, ed. by Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mckenzie, New York : RILM Intellectual Centre and The City University of New York, Móricz, Klára. The Anxiety of Influence and Comfort of Style. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice T. 40, Fasc. 4 (1999): Pejović, Roksanda. Prilog monografiji Josipa Slavenskog. Mišljenja kritičara o njegovim kompozicijama u vremenu od godine. Zvuk 3 (1981): Peričić, Vlastimir (s. a. [1969]) Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji, Beograd: Prosveta. Peričić, Vlastimir. Josip Slavenski i njegova astroakustika. Međimurje 7 (1985): [On German language published in the journal Musiktheorie, 3, Heft. I (1988): 55 70]. 38

39 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK S... Radinović, Sanja. Stanislav Vinaver, Ježef Debreceni, Josip Slavenski i Bela Bartok u etnomuzikološkom diskursu (ili: o mogućim posledicama jedne stare polemike). In Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba [Cyrillic], edited by Mirjana Živković, Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd Muzikološki institut SANU SOKOJ MIC, Sabo, Anica. Bela Bartok Marko Tajčević. In Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], edited by Dejan Despić, Beograd: SANU, Samson, Jim. Music in the Balkans. Leiden Boston: Brill, Sedak, Eva. Josip Štolcer Slavenski, skladatelj prijelaza. Svezak prvi. Zagreb: Muzičko informativni centar Koncertne direkcije Zagreb Muzikološki zavod Muzičke akademije u Zagrebu, Sedak, Eva. Nationale Musik oder die Konstruktion des Nationalen als Musik am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts. In Kompositorische und soziokulturelle Aspekte der Musikgeschichte zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa. Konferenzbericht, Leipzig 2002, ed. by Helmut Loos and Stefan Keym, Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag, Slavenski, Milana. Josip. Beograd: Muzička škola Josip Slavenski SOKOJ MIC, Subotić, Irina. Two Self Portraits of Josip Slavenski. New Sound [Novi zvuk] 33 (2009): Špirić-Beard, Danijela. Border Bridge Crossroads: the Construction of Yugoslav Identity in Music ( ) and the Case of Josip Štolcer Slavenski: PhD diss. Cardiff University, Taruskin, Richard Why You Cannot Leave Bartók Out. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae T. 47, Fasc. 3/4 [Bartók s Orbit. The Context and Sphere of Influence of His Work. Proceedings of the International Conference Held by the Bartók Archives, Budapest (22 24 March 2006). Part I. (Sep., 2006)] (2006): Taruskin, Richard. The Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2009, 2 nd ed Tomašević, Katarina. Duh vremena u delima i delatnostima Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića. In Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], edited by Dejan Despić, Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, Tomašević, Katarina. Istok Zapad u polemičkom kontekstu srpske muzike. [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): Tomašević, Katarina. Musical Modernism at Periphery? Serbian Music of the First Half of the Twentieth Century. In Rethinking Musical Modernism, ed. by Dejan Despić and Melita Milin, Belgrade: SASA and Instititute of Musicology SASA, Tomašević, Katarina. Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada. O dijalogu tradicionalnog i modernog u srpskoj muzici ( ). [Cyrillic + Summary on English, ] Beograd Novi Sad: Muzikološki institut SANU Matica srpska, Vikárius, László. Modell ès inspiráció Bartók zenei gondolkodásában. A hatás jelenségének értelmezéséhez [Model and inspiration in Bartók s musical thinking: toward the interpretation of the phenomenon of influence]. Pécs: Ars Longa Jelenkor Kiadó, Živković, Mirjana, ed.. Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba. [Cyrillic] Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd Muzikološki institut SANU SOKOJ MIC,

40 POVZETEK Ni dvoma, da sta celostno delovanje in kreativni dosežki Béle Bartóka ( ) odločilno vplivali na razvoj muzikologije in etnomuzikologije, v nekdanji Jugoslaviji. Glavni namen dotične raziskave je raziskati in pretresti modalitete Bartókovega skladateljskega vpliva v prvi polovici 20. stoletja. Poudarka sta na Josipu Slavenskem ( ) in Marku Tajčeviću ( ), dveh pomembnih skladateljih jugoslovanske medvojne glasbene zgodovine. Slavenski in Tajčević, ki sta bila zavezana balkanski ljudski glasbi, torej glasbi njune domovine, sta ustvarila vsak po svoje nov, svež in inventiven glasbeni jezik, čigar ekspresivna svežina in kakovost sta dosegla velik odmev v tujini. Slavenski je mednarodno zaslovel zlasti s svojo slikovito suito za orkester Balkanofonija (1927), medtem ko je Tajčević zablestel s svojim učinkovitim ciklom za klavir Sedem balkanskih iger (1926). Kljub dejstvu, da so med vojnama obe deli večkrat po vsem svetu igrali slavni orkestri, tema dvema jugo-vzhodnima Bartókovima sopotnikoma še zmeraj posvečajo zelo malo pozornosti. Nedavno izjemo predstavlja knjiga Music in the Balkans avtorja Jima Samsona (Leiden Boston: Brill, 2013). Sprva je prikazana zgodnja biografija Josipa Slavenskega, kjer je izpostavljen študij na Konservatoriju v Budimpešti ( ). Slavenski je tedaj pomagal Kodályju in Bartóku pri njunem etnomuzikološkem delu. V primerjavi z drugimi jugoslovanskimi skladatelji je Slavenski (naj)bolje poznal Bartókovo delo in njegove moderne ideje, postopke in strategije. Prikazati podobnosti med njima predstavlja bistvo nadaljnjega koraka raziskave. Ne glede na dejstvo, da sklepi v članku jasno pokažejo, da njuno glasbo in svet idej prepredajo mnoge skupne značilnosti, ki sodijo v kontekst modernizma, kako je bil Slavenski, enako kot Bartók, zaskrbljen glede modernističnih vplivov in kako je, znova vzporedno Bartóku, našel zatočišče pred to skrbjo v ljudski glasbi (Cf. Vikárius 1999). Drugi je Marko Tajčević, srbski skladatelj, ki je živel in delal v Zagrebu do leta V nasprotju s Slavenskim je Tajčević prostodušno priznal pomen lastnega navdušenja nad Bartókom: v svojem iskanju novosti v glasbenem izrazu mu je Bartókova klavirska glasba služila kot vzor in ga v najširši meri spodbudila h komponiranju njegovih privlačnih in tehnično zahtevnih Sedem balkanskih iger. Zadnji del predstavlja mednarodno recepcijo Tajčevićevih dosežkov. V zaključnih opazkah so potrjene začetne premise: kljub dejstvu, da najdemo v opusih Slavenskega in Tajčevića na široko posejane sledove Bartóka, ta izjemna skladatelja ne smemo imeti za posnemovalca madžarskega mojstra; prav nasprotno, nista bila zgolj uspešna Bartókova naslednika, ampak tudi sopotnika na skupni, razburljivi dogodivščini ustvarjanja novih, sodobnih in barvitih slik balkanske glasbene tradicije. 40

41 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA MUSICAL ELEMENTS... UDK (495.6) DOI: /mz Aida Islam, Stefanija Leshkova Zelenkovska Pedagoška fakulteta»st. Kliment Ohridski«, Skopje Akademija za glasbo, Štip Faculty of Pedagogy St. Climent Ohridski, Skopje Music Academy, Štip Musical Elements in the Performing Approach: Sonatina in C for Two Pianos from a Macedonian Contemporary Composer Glasbene prvine v službi interpretacijskega pristopa: Sonatina v C za dva klavirja makedonskega sodobnega skladatelja Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: makedonsko sodobno glasbeno ustvarjanje, neoklasicizem, Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina v C, interpretacijske značilnosti IZVLEČEK Tomislav Zografski ( ) je predstavnik srednje generacije sodobnih makedonskih skladateljev. V makedonsko glasbo je uvedel osnovne prvine neoklasicizma. To stilno usmeritev je Zografski razvil v nekaterih glasbenih delih na področju komornega in simfoničnega ustvarjanja. Received: 12th October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: Macedonian contemporary art music, neoclassicism, Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina v C, performing details ABSTRACT Tomislav Zografski ( ) is one of the representatives of the middle generation of modern Macedonian composers. He introduced into Macedonian art music the basic elements of neoclassicism. Zografski, in some of his works, develops this stylistic direction in the fields of chamber and symphony music. 41

42 Introduction Tendencies of the neoclassical musical discourse present in the cultural environments of 20th century Europe. And also penetrate into the Macedonian musical creation through aesthetic choices of some of the composers for the acceptance of the determinants of this style. In the previous theoretical thought devoted to the work of Macedonian composers, the name of Tomislav Zografski is interpreted as a composer whose works, with some variations, were realized in the neoclassical manners of S. Prokofiev and I. Stravinsky. 1 Neoclassicism in the Macedonian musical creation began at the time when this style was largely abandoned. Namely, the first neoclassical work of I. Stravinsky, by which is defined the beginning of neoclassicism, was written in 1923 (Octet for Wind Instruments), while the first neoclassical fruits in the field of the Macedonian art music ripened 30 years later, more precisely in , with the work Ten Miniatures for Piano by T. Zografski. During the same period of his student days, the composer wrote Sonatina in C for two Pianos, and by analyzing it in this paper, we wish to profile it as a typical representative of the neoclassical tendency in Macedonia. In this work, we are aiming to determine the degree of representation of Neoclassicism s stylistic aesthetic principles, in the function of its interpretation attributes. We achieved the operationalization of the intended goals and objectives by analyzing the sheet notes partitures, as well as the sound recordings of the work, focusing on the expressive elements individually. 1. The characteristics of Tomislav Zografski work Tomislav Zografski is one of the prominent representatives of middle generation, who incorporated the basic elements of Neoclassicism, which he developed in several works in the field of chamber and symphony work. In his creative opus that contained 141 works with a wide genre range, he had achieved a perfect balance between the old traditions and the modern musical trends. His works comprised of vocal and instrumental, orchestral, chamber, choral, and film music. In the later stages of his development, he evolved toward more modern expression seeking a new ways in the contemporary music influenced by the Polish School (K. Penderecki and W. Lutoslawski). Under this influence, in his works he often used constructive principles of baroque and early classical style, promoting restoration of the expressive possibilities of the earlier. 2 In contrast to the earlier Macedonian composers whose musical works were mainly based on folklore, but Zografski used it rarely. Melody lines are clear, built on reminiscences on the classical themes, by using quotes that can be felt mostly in the Sonatina in C for two pianos and the Symphony in E-flat, where the spirit of Viennese classics 1 Dragoslav Ortakov, Muzichkata umetnost vo Makedonija (Skopje: Makedonska revija, 1982), Raleva Zanina, Akulturaciskite i enkulturaciskite procesi vo makedonskata sovremena muzika niz prizmata na eden stip i eden avtor Tomislav Zografski: magisterski trud,

43 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA MUSICAL ELEMENTS... prevails. In contrast to these works, compositions without quotations can be found in the creative opus of Zografski, such as Fantasy Chorale. 3 Conceptual aesthetic properties of Zografski modernize the stylistic features of music from the previous generations of Macedonian composers, with tendencies of developing compositional and technical achievements to the level of European music of the 20th century, based on his personal beliefs, educational level and his personal expression Sonatina in C for two pianos In the overall creativity of Macedonian contemporary music until the beginning of the new millennium only three sonata cycles were written for two pianos: Sonatina in C and Sonata for two pianos by T. Zografski and the Sonata for two pianos by S. Tosevski, created in 1965, being, therefore, closer to the modern tonal idiom characteristic for that period. The Sonatina in C for two pianos (1955), which is the subject of our analysis, is a typical example of our attempt to implement European neoclassical manners, especially characteristic for I. Stravinsky, to the world of the fertile Macedonian creativity. By fostering the sonata cycle as a form inherited from the past, the author has retained the general framework of its external structure, often making changes in the internal structure of movements Structural analysis Genre and form In the analysis of the genre and form of Sonatina for two pianos, what mostly stands out is the successful balancing of the classical form, combined with a more modern harmonic and tonal language on one hand, and the content of the music on the other. The title sonatina, a diminutive of sonata, alludes on a sonata cycle of a smaller scale in this case, in three movements within which is effected a reduction of technical composition means. By choosing the form, in order to correspond with the genre, the composer applied a simplified style of expression that is based on a bright transparent infantile character, with the exception of the second movement with the emergence of a minor key that incites specific serious and sad feeling. Sections of movements are constructed on the basis of several types of form-shaping principles, such as changed repetition, development and principle of contrasting. The first movement Allegro, which contains harmonic syllable and four-voiced homophonic texture, represents the traditional sonata form, where, at expressing the thematic material, larger units (periods) are used, with the exception of the development section 3 Branko Karakas, Muzichkite tvorci vo Makedonija (Skopje: Makedonska kniga, 1970), Toma Proshev, Sovremena makedonska muzika (Pula: Istarska naklada, 1986),

44 containing more fragmentary material. In fact, the theme material is built on motif, which as a practice is characteristic of classicism, or more specifically for the works of Beethoven. In terms of form, the second movement Andantino is a triple form (a b a1) with the independent parts indicating higher music-syntactic wholeness. Polyphonic aspects constitute the conceptual tissue of the first and reprised part of the movement (a and a1). The dominance of metrorhythmic pulsation in the contrapuntal layering in the first part (a), which has polyphonic features, gives the impression of constructing according to the principle of aurally noticeable metrorhythmic similarity. Period in the second part (b) is constructed according to the principle of repetition of wholes (T-S). The formal structure of the third movement Allegro molto is a rondo with two themes. The first part is characterized by the rhythmic motorics typical for the classical final movements while part b shows greater rhythmic standstills by which the composer reached full contrast in terms of expressive elements. Coda is a combination of the thematic material of the two parts. The Sonatina is based on half-cadences and a fewer number of authentic and perfect cadences. Quotes The significance of the quote in this Sonatina and the work, in general, has certain aesthetic functions, with the role of form-shaping factor and the factor that initiates historical conditionality and variability of the artistic conceptions. The most recognizable quote in this Sonatina with authentic version is the musical material of the second movement of the Sonatina for piano KV 330 in C Major by Mozart. That is, both versions make up the middle section of the three partitioned movements. Example number 1: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Sonata KV 330, II. Example number 2: Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina in C, II. 44

45 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA MUSICAL ELEMENTS... The difference that Zografski made at integrating this motif refers to the accompanying section that from obstinate form transforms to spread chords of a given tonality. The quotes that are used in other movements are taken from Sonata op. 2 No. 3 for piano, as well as the Spring Sonata for violin and piano in F major by Beethoven. Example number 3: Ludwig van Beethoven, Violin Spring Sonata in F, I. Example number 4: Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina in C, III. Melodic and melodic waves The melodic progression as the bearer of the genre features in this Sonatina helps in the function of rising and declining the tension. The graphic line of melody, consisting of interval jumps of smaller and larger scale, is supported by the accompanying voice, which makes it even more intensively emphasized. The contrast on the melodic level is partly achieved by changing the accompaniment which transits into a thick pulsating of motifs. Introduction of polyphony in the first part of the second movement greatly contributes mainly to the linear upward progression of the melody, with the exception of the initial bars containing three smaller waves persistently tending to climb to the highest tone (c3). 45

46 The dashing character of the third movement is expressed more vividly with the continued downward progression of the whole melodic wave, despite the small oscillations that adorn and exuberate this progression. Articulation analysis inevitably leads us to the aspect of one of the important expressive elements. The manner in which the tones are grouped in this work takes us back to the classical period in which typical connecting of a small number of tones in one span represents reversing of the form of string articulation into piano articulation. 5 Actually, the articulation phrasing of the whole Sonatina fully meets the principles and the way of phrasing, typical for the 18th century, in which ligatures didn t protrude beyond the framework of bar features. Harmonic structure Harmonic structure is within the expanded major minor system, a result of the individual harmonic language of Zografski, specific for the period in which the work has been created despite the fact that at that time were present diverse techniques of composing with expressed tonality. As alluded to by the title of the composition, its specific tonal center, i.e., in C, in homophonic texture in which the thinking runs horizontally each line runs separately. For these reasons, it isn t about the tonalities, but its about the tonal center. With the tendency of including polyphonic elements, the author transforms the harmonic syllable into monodic harmonic mode, as for example, in the development section of the first movement, in section a of the second movement, and in the second theme of rondo in the third movement. Modes that are met in the work have a phonic function, and therefore they cannot be treated in the spirit of the old church modes, where relations of the tones had a certain character (D,T, nota repercusa, nota finalis, etc.). A contrast of tones is also noted, that is, a bitonal character of the polyphonic tissue which founded on the two sound sequences that are complemented functionally. The tonal centers are based on the distance of half-degree, such as E major D major or B flat D minor, as a result of the distance of a small second resulting from the same major third chords. The continuous transformation of modes from harmonic to monodic harmonic is one of the ways that Zografski implements for emphasizing the contrast of the parts in this Sonatina. Rhythm and meter The rhythm of Zografski in this Sonatina breathes with the temperament and the spirit of rhythm of the classical period, successfully adapted to the spirit of modern rhythmic metric idiom. The eight-note pulsation with sporadic rhythmic delays, by 5 Clive Brown, Classical and Romantic Performance Practice (Oxford: University Press, 1999),

47 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA MUSICAL ELEMENTS... which is constituted the rhythmic pattern of this Sonatina, fully corresponds to the spirit of the composition filled with life, transparency, and ease. The factor responsible for the absence of more complex rhythmic structures is a result of the identification of classical rhythmic patterns on one side, and an adequate reflection of the genre on the other side. Which differentiates the first movement from the other ones is the presence of horizontal polymetric as, one of the features of Macedonian ambient, as well as of the contemporary music. The important role of the metrical concept in defining the character-genre form is largely attributed to higher meter, which is mostly responsible for the unification of bars around a central bar, thus shaping large groups. Its precisely this element that is the key to surpassing the static of music which is replaced by focusing toward the emphasis, and in that way musical thought is moved. In terms of music interpunction, the emergence of a new texture which defines the new part of the form occurs mostly on a strong beat part (tròhēj) in this sonatina. The exception is in the second movement, in which a rhythm moved for a certain period of time to the right affirms the iambic measure as a prime mover. Texture The visual perception of musical notation of Sonatina in C reveals the style and genre of the work by the manner of its organization vertically. Transparent texture located in the ambitus (range) of middle register, dominance of the constant rhythmic pulsation, accompanied by Baroque-style progressions, contrasting the sections with homophonic and polyphonic texture inevitably show connection with the styles of the past periods, unity between baroque and classicism, as one of the characteristics of the neoclassical style. Dynamics The composer determined the rhythmic plan of Sonatina in C in details, thus contributing in finding out proper experiencing and interpreting of the smallest musical details peculiar to the nature of the work. The dynamic ambitus which ranges in the limits between p and ff fully corresponds to the spirit of the dynamic concept, supplemented by the presence of sf inherent to Beethoven. The primary attribute of strong dynamics for creating tension in the expression reaches its maximum of ff combined with sf, by highlighting dissonant chord as an expression of exclamation. Generally, the different dynamic symbols in this work have been used in two qualifications: 1) in achieving a certain contrast between sections as the basic feature of musical form that is constructed based on conflicts, and 2) for displaying more delicate details, like the culminations in the first movement, the game of contrasts between short motifs in the second and third movements. 47

48 Timbre The dramaturgical effect of this work is placed in the central register, containing sound range within the timbre features of the baroque and classical period. Application of polar octaves from the register is usually in the function of highlighting the culminations. Tempo The exact determination of tempos in the Sonatina reflects the author s intention to join the guidelines, although very often the choice of tempo depends on individual treatment and understanding of the musical content. In this sense, Allegro is supposed to be a reflection of joy, enthusiasm, and optimism that prevail. The Andante in the second movement is slightly moved to Andantino in the task of achieving fluid motion of the polyphonic syllable in the first part. Allegro molto, which is treated as being closer to Presto in the third movement, reflects the enthusiasm which prevails in the entire movement. Interpretation The sound result of interpretation of Sonatina in C assumes affirmation of transparency and high spirit, which is a prerequisite for satisfying genre affiliation. Integration of the short string phrases to a wholeness of a higher order, led by a sense of focusing on local and main culminations, is an important segment of the interpretation, which inspires liveliness to the music. Highlighting the change of character in the appearance of a new musical material (e.g., a second theme, developing section in the first movement) enriches musical interpretation with new aesthetic dimensions, new color, etc. Dedication to clearly stated guidelines in the partiture concerning dynamic conceptualization contributes to the enrichment of sound coloration, reaching its peak in culmination with fanfaronade sonority. Realization of fluidity of the second movement is achieved by refined running of the dynamic progression that extends into the broader plan. Highlighting the sf in the second part of the movement contributes in achieving the grotesque character and fulfilling the basic intention of the author during the performance. The enthusiastic and cheerful character of the third movement is enabled by an easy touché and focusing on target points, where relief dynamics is replaced by a continuous progression of sound it culminates in ff at the end of the first part. And in that way is achieved a perfect wholeness. The use of una corda in the second theme of rondo greatly contributes to achieving a mystical atmosphere interwoven with the contrast and a massive part that should sound with all its strength and energy typical of a storm. 48

49 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA MUSICAL ELEMENTS... The complementarity of supporting elements progression, especially the melodic structure, which constantly moves from one to the other piano, is one of the author s very own characteristics. This provides an opportunity for equitable distribution of responsibility and highlighting evenly the interpretation skills of both artists and pianists. Conclusion Analysis of the Sonatina for two pianos in C of the contemporary Macedonian composer T. Zografski allowed synthesizing of essential components in the function of interpretation attributes. By determining the characteristics of expressive means musical form, melodic, harmonic structure, rhythm and meter, tempo, dynamics, timbre, and texture, we get a clear picture of the author s conceptual determination in terms of the interpretation approach to work. For a more adequate and plausible interpretation, comparative analysis of the different interpretations of the recorded work plays an important role. Because they allow building the individual criteria that can be based on summarizing the positive parts of the realized performances, personal intentions and aesthetic views, by capturing the author s style and conception, the conventions of time, and so on, especially when it comes to the recorded performance of the author s work. Bibliography Brown, Clive. Classical and Romantic Performance Practice. Oxford: University Press, Ferguson, Howard. Keyboard Interpretations 14-19th Century. Oxford: University Press, Golaboski, Sotir. Istorija na makedonskata muzika. Skopje: Prosvetno delo, Jovich, Tihomir. Polifonijata vo makedonskoto muzichko tvoreshtvo. Godishen zbornik, god. 2, br.2, Shtip, FMU (2011): UGD, Karakash, Branko. Muzichkite tvorci vo Makedonija. Skopje: Makedonska kniga, Krautz, Michel. The Interpretation of Music. Oxford: University Press, Mancev, Tome. Analiza na muzichko delo. Godishen zbornik, god. 2, br.2, Shtip, FMU (2011): UGD, Ortakov, Dragoslav. Muzichkata umetnost vo Makedonija. Skopje: Makedonska revija, Proshev, Toma. Sovremena makedonska muzika. Pula: Istarska naklada, Raleva Zanina, Akulturaciskite i enkulturaciskite procesi vo makedonskata sovremena muzika niz prizmata na eden stip i eden avtor Tomislav Zografski: magisterski trud. Fakultet za muzička umetnost/ukim, Skopje, Schenker, Henrich. The Art of Performance. Oxford: University Press, Skoda, Badura, Paul. L art de jouer Mozart au piano. Chastel: Edition Buc,

50 POVZETEK Neoklasicizem se v makedonski ustvarjalnosti pojavi v obdobju, ko je bila drugod ta smer že skoraj pozabljena. Ena prvih neoklasicističnih skladb je iz leta 1954 oz. 1955, in sicer Deset miniatur za klavir Tomislava Zografskega ( ). Zografski velja za enega izmed najpomembnejših predstavnikov srednje generacije sodobnih makedonskih ustvarjalcev, ki v svoja dela uvaja prvine neoklasicizma. Sonatina v C-duru za dva klavirja (1955), ki je predmet analize, predstavlja tipičen primer poizkusa implementacije evropskih neoklasicističnih prvin, še posebej značilnih za I. Stravinskega. Upoštevajoč sonatni ciklus je Zografski obdržal splošne okvire njene zunanje konstrukcije, pri čemer je pogosto spreminjal notranjo strukturo. V prispevku so predstavljene bistvene kompozicijsko-tehnične prvine kot tudi različni interpretacijski pristopi k delu. 50

51 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... UDK (87) DOI: /mz Ludim Rebeca Pedroza Univerza v Teksasu Texas State University The Joropo in Venezuela s Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in José Clemente Laya s Sonata Venezolana Joropo v venezuelski glasbeni moderni: kulturni kapital v skladbi Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: joropo, sonata, Laya, analiza, Venezuela, nacionalizem IZVLEČEK Venezuelska Šola nacionalne moderne (Escuela Nacional Moderna) iz 30-ih in 40-ih let 20. stoletja je imela ljudski ples joropo za polnokrvno sredstvo glasbenega izraza, ki je zahteval pozornost umetniške avtonomije. Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye (1946) prikazuje, kako so skladatelji okvir sonatne oblike preoblikovali z glasbeno navzočnostjo joropa. Received: 12th October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: Joropo, Sonata, Laya, analysis, Venezuela, nationalism ABSTRACT The Venezuelan Escuela Nacional Moderna (1930s 40s) considered the joropo folk dance an inherently rich musical expression that demanded the spotlight of artistic autonomy. José Clemente Laya s Sonata venezolana (1946) demonstrates how these composers transformed the framework of sonata form with the joropo s musical presence. It was with Aldemaro Romero s Fuga con Pajarillo (1990) that the 23-year-old Dudamel sealed his fate as winner of Bamberg s inaugural Gustav Mahler Conducting Competition in So declares Berlin-based music critic Shirley Apthorp. 1 Romero s Fuga con Pajarillo continues to share in Gustavo Dudamel s visibility, receiving 1 Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela, Fiesta, conducted by Gustavo Dudamel, recorded at the Centro de Acción Social por la Música, Sala Simón Bolívar, Caracas, 1/2008 (Deutsche Grammophon, 2008, compact disc, liner notes). 51

52 broad international exposure on labels such as Deutsche Grammophon, in social engines such as youtube, and in the repertoire of non-venezuelan orchestras. Dudamel s choice of repertoire not only fulfilled the competition s requirement that contestants bring a symphonic work from their own country; it also set the spotlight on the pajarillo, one of the many sub-genres of the joropo, a dance widely embraced by Venezuelans as a national symbol. On first encounter with Fuga con Pajarillo, the average listener will be struck by its multidimensional contrapuntal vitality; music aficionados and scholars alike might also identify the ubiquitous sesquiáltera the juxtaposition of triple and duple meters alternating with each other or in a simultaneous interplay. Within this interplay of meters, the rich syncopated discourse, rhythmic counterpoint, and juegos hemiolados (hemiolated games) create the difficult to put together, but beautiful 2 musical identity of the joropo. It was during the 1930s that this musical identity was partially codified and assimilated into the academic domain by the leaders of the Escuela Nacional Moderna (ENM hereon), 3 Vicente Emilio Sojo ( ), Juan Bautista Plaza ( ), and José Antonio Calcaǹo ( ). Indeed, Aldemaro Romero s successful rendition of the joropo stems from the groundwork established by several key compositions the ENM produced during the 1930s and 40s. Of these, Juan Bautista Plaza s Sonatina venezolana (1934) has received broad attention in various musicological circles, and has been exposed to an international audience through recordings and various editions. 4 Other compelling works, such as the Sonata venezolana (1946) of José Clemente Laya ( ), are recognized in international catalogues, 5 but have received far less attention from scholars and musicians alike. Both compositions are notable in that they successfully codified musical elements that have become part of the cultural capital of Venezuelan composers to this day. Building on the ideas of cultural theorists Néstor García Canclini and Pierre Bourdieu, I will argue that the ENM heard the joropo as an inherently rich form of musical expression, transporting its indisputable presence not merely harvesting its isolated rhythms or melodies from the world of song and dance onto the listening stages of the academy and the international field of music. The ENM established an autonomous field of music in Venezuela in part by codifying those musical qualities of the joropo they believed were deserving of the aesthetic spotlight. After a theoretical contextualization of the ENM, I will provide a rhetorical and sonic foundation for a substantial examination of the joropo. I will continue by engaging José Antonio Calcaǹo s public review and analysis of the celebrated Sonatina venezolana (1934), composed by his colleague Juan Bautista Plaza. The traits that Calcaǹo identifies as successful in this work are expanded in the pieces of the early generation of graduates of the ENM, of which José Clemente Laya s Sonata venezolana (1946) is 2 Ibid. I am borrowing Dudamel s choice of words. 3 Escuela Nacional Moderna (Modern National School) is one of the epithets by which the early twentieth-century composition school in Caracas, led by Vicente Emilio Sojo ( ), has come to be known. Other names include Escuela Nacionalista Venezolana and Escuela de Santa Capilla. José Peǹ ín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. Laya Morales, José Clemente, and s.v. Sojo, Vicente Emilio. 4 See note Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist s Repertoire, fourth edition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013),

53 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... a particularly interesting example. I will explore the first movement of Laya s sonata, titled joropo, identifying how the impelling traits of the joropo absorb the defining aspects of sonata form, the quintessential structure of autonomy in the international field. Finally, conclusive remarks and issues regarding the joropo in the field will be posed for future studies. The Joropo and the Foundation of the (Autonomous) Music Field in Venezuela Scholars have approached the ENM in a variety of ways, producing celebratory studies of its modernizing projects and critical deconstructions of its socio-cultural legacy. 6 Most recently, building on the theoretical platforms offered by Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm, and Ernest Gellner, Pedro Rafael Aponte argues that the ENM favored the joropo, among a rich diversity of regional traditions, as the homogenizing musical icon for Venezuela and, that it promoted the study of European composers and forms and the foundation of choral and symphonic entities, all of which the ENM considered crucial to modern artistic literacy. 7 Aponte s approach to invented traditions demonstrates, among other things, how the Sojo/Plaza/Calcaǹo triumvirate strived to produce repertoire that audiences and critics would hear as both Venezuelan and aesthetically artful. In short, they were creating the audience, the repertoire, and the codes for hearing Venezuelan music as distinctively Venezuelan and artistically literate. 8 From a Bourdieuian perspective, the ENM was effectively establishing a Venezuelan academic field, that is, the educational and civic spaces where musicians could receive and exhibit sanctioned training. They were also building cultural capital skills, techniques, rhetoric, and codes that could meet the challenge of being heard as both Venezuelan and autonomously artistic. And they were carving out ambitious social spaces for the reception of their work, seeking symbolic capital, the recognition of national and international critics, the embrace of the broadest possible audience, and a place in the international music field. All three competing principles of legitimacy of the field, as theorized by Bourdieu, were central to the ENM s project: the recognition granted by the set of producers who produce for other producers.... the recognition of the bourgeois taste.... the consecration bestowed by the choice of ordinary consumers Indeed, like many other early twentieth-century Latin American ar- 6 On the celebratory side, see the highly regarded studies Marie Elizabeth Labonville, Juan Bautista Plaza and Musical Nationalism in Venezuela (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2007) and Miguel Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza: Una vida por la música y por Venezuela (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones y Estudios Musicales Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1985); important critical studies include José Peñín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. Nacionalismo; José Peñín, Plaza y el nacionalismo, Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 38 (1998): ; Fidel Rodríguez Legendre, Música, Sojo y caudillismo cultural (Caracas: Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1998); and the work of Pedro Rafael Aponte, to be cited at length in this article. 7 Pedro Rafael Aponte, The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, (PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2008). See especially chapters 4 and 5. 8 Ibid., especially Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed, in The Field of Cultural Production, ed. by Randal Johnson (Columbia University Press, 1993), This compilation of Bourdieu s writings constitutes an excellent summary of his theoretical apparatus, aspects of which I have attempted to encapsulate in the italicized concepts of this section. 53

54 tistic projects, the ENM sought both emancipation and democratization, two of the dimensions of modernity theorized by Nestor García Canclini. 10 The academic spaces, the symphony orchestra, the concert choir, the search for a Venezuelan musical voice, the assimilation of contemporary international practices as well as the quintessential forms of absolute music the sonata and the symphony and not least, the music appreciation programs, all appeared to them as necessary vehicles for the creation of an autonomous music field. For Bourdieu, autonomous fields are social spaces that adhere to the belief of art-for-art s-sake, and that eschew functionality and the approval of the masses. The ENM desired that field of aesthetic autonomy, yet they also wished it to remain populist to the core. This dynamic, in its rejection of European domination but its internalization of its civilizing mission has at times been read as self-colonization. 11 Yet, in discussing the first phase of Mexican modernism in the visual arts, García Canclini invites us to resist self-colonization readings: It was not so much the direct transplanted influence of the European vanguard that gave rise to the modernizing vein in the visual arts on the continent, but rather the questions of the Latin Americans themselves about how to make their international experience compatible with the tasks presented to them by developing societies In looking at the permanent conflict that is the unifying principle of the field, 13 as Bourdieu proposes, what are the movements of affection and participation in solidary or complicit activities in which hegemonic and subaltern groups are needed, García Canclini could ask. 14 Indeed, the ENM sought to occupy a space that is already occupied; 15 they desired to be part of the international music field rather than subvert it, and like all members of the field, they believed in the game 16. In creating an emancipated aesthetic that would help them participate in the game in the international music field, what questions did the ENM ask? How do their answers and actions suggest not only the invention of tradition and modernity, but also their hedonic regard for the musics practiced on their surrounding soil, their affections and complicities? In plain language, how does succumbing to the challenges of the modernization project allow the ENM to indulge in the difficult but beautiful intricacies of musics such as the joropo? García Canclini invites us to take these questions seriously, to look into the actions that take place beyond the symbolic projections of modernity and tradition, inside the coveted autonomous field of music in Venezuela. 10 Néstor García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, trans. by Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), (Originally published as Culturas híbridas: Estrategias para entrar y salir de la modernidad, editorial Grijalbo, Mexico, D.F., 1990.) 11 See Aponte, The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, , 25, where he cites Fernando Coronil s arguments from The Magical State: Nature, Money, and Modernity in Venezuela (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), Ibid., 50. Emphasis mine. 13 Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production, García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, Ibid., 75. García Canclini analyzes Jorge Luis Borges s work, recognizing that... to write, especially in peripheral countries, is to occupy a space that is already occupied. 16 Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995),

55 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... On the question of how do we create the national? In analyzing the writings of ENM leader Juan Bautista Plaza, along with the reception of his works, Aponte provides evidence of the difficult task these composers faced. On the one hand, their own eclectic inclinations at times confused critics and audiences who were not keen to accept their creations as Venezuelan simply on account of the nationality of the composer. On the other, while the ENM leaders were aware of the rich variety of genres cultivated in different regions of Venezuela, neither the critics nor the urban audiences appeared to share that awareness. Interestingly, Plaza finds himself defending his Siete canciones Venezolanas (1932, Seven Venezuelan Songs ) due to the apparent inability of one critic to hear anything Venezuelan in them; the critic particularly missed the presence of the joropo, which was the most broadly known vernacular genre in the country. 17 Seemingly, the ENM leaders are initially pressed to favor the joropo as a possible answer to the question of how to create a national musical aesthetic. Aponte convincingly argues this point by discussing three other works by Plaza including the Sonatina Venezolana (1934) which draws strongly on the joropo and which proved to be successful with audiences and critics as exemplars of Venezuelan music. 18 Even as they lamented the narrow knowledge of critics and audiences in relation to folk musics, one should not assume the ENM leaders were violating their own affections in favoring the joropo. Calcaǹo does not spare effusive adjectives when describing the rhythm of joropo as full of grace and exquisiteness, 19 and Vicente Emilio Sojo, well known for his admiration of vocal polyphony, often alluded (with a tinge of pride) to the polyrhythmic character of the songs and dances of the plains, which he believed to have sprung from the integration of Spanish sacred and secular techniques with the existing musical sensibilities of the laborers in the plains ranches. 20 The joropo claims kinship with the family of the fandango, which was widely spread throughout Latin America since the eighteenth century. Like the fandango, the joropo is an umbrella genre that engulfs a rich variety of dance, vocal, and instrumental regional sub-genres, each with formulas of musical and choreographic elements codified among their practitioners. In short, that the joropo genre emerged as the most likely candidate to represent an overall Venezuelan aesthetic identity is understandable, given its diffusion, popularity, and appeal across various regions of the country. The work of art is an object of belief 21 in an autonomous field that must justify its meta-functionalist claim to existence, its art-for-art s-sake motto. But the work of art is also a collectively experience-able, sonic object, or, at the very least, the work of art involves such a sonic involvement. This leads us to an interesting crossroad in contempo- 17 Aponte, The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, , Ibid., José Antonio Calcaǹo, La sonatina venezolana de Juan Bautista Plaza, El Nuevo Diario, Agosto 20, 1934; quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, See Vicente Emilio Sojo, Carta del maestro Sojo al poeta Carlos Augusto León, Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 21 (1987): The work of art is an object which exists as such only by virtue of the (collective) belief which knows and acknowledges it as a work of art. Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production,

56 rary musicology; even though post-1980s musicology has engaged in uncovering the sociological underpinnings of classical (canonized) repertoires, it has done so relying on the sonic familiarity facilitated by an established system of listening codes. Thus, even as it eschews formalism, the musicology field speaks to a coterie of readers who, whether keen on celebrating or destroying the musical work in question, is ultimately sonically and rhetorically familiar with the work and/or the genres that have been codified by the very formalism it rejects. So it is that in much of their discourse scholars can bypass formalistic analysis altogether. With musical practices that fall far from the international canon and its systemic codes, critical analysis must involve a written listening; it must introduce key aspects of the sonic experience at the center of the work of art in question in this case, the joropo. Listening to the joropo Many varieties of joropo continue to thrive in Venezuela to this day. We will explore one of the most broadly known and studied, the joropo llanero ( plains joropo, also called golpe, and pasaje, both of which should be considered sub-categories). 22 This joropo is associated with the plains regions of both Venezuela and Colombia, and in its most traditional form features the arpa llanera (the plains harp, a diatonic harp with a varying number of strings), the cuatro (a four-string small guitar), and the maracas. 23 Figure 1 is a visual abstraction of the basic rhythmic functions of these instruments. Figure 1: Joropo llanero, instruments and their rhythmic functions (with clave de corrido). 22 The seminal study of the joropo was undertaken by Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, and published in A second edition is available: Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, El Joropo, Baile Nacional de Venezuela, 2 nd ed. (Caracas, Venezuela: E. Armitano, 1987). More recently, Claudia Calderón Sáenz has produced Estudio analítico y comparativo sobre la música del joropo, expresión tradicional de Venezuela y Colombia, Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 39 (1999): An overview of the genre is offered in José Peñín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. Joropo. 23 The plains harp and the cuatro are criollo versions of the Baroque harp and vihuela that arrived in Venezuela during colonial times. Musicologist Alberto Calzavara discusses historical documentation of these instruments in chapters seven and eight of his Historia de la Música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Pampero, 1987). 56

57 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... Traditionally, the harp is the foundational instrument of the ensemble. The harp s treble strings at times carry a relatively lyrical melody. At others, they provide melodic counterpoint, alternating between 6/8 and 3/4 (as shown at the top of Figure 1), thus producing the ubiquitous sesquiáltera characteristic of the joropo and other Latin American genres. 24 The harp s bass strings also called bordones ground the music in one of several 3/4 patterns (Figure 1 shows one of the most common), interacting with the harp treble strings to produce a rich array of polyrhythmic encounters, like that shown in the first two measures of Figure 1 where the treble strings are in 6/8 against the 3/4 of the bordones (a vertical sesquiáltera). The cuatro player uses the rasgueo, an aggressive strumming technique; by alternating between open-hand strumming and closed-hand strumming, the cuatrista adds percussive, accented syncopations (Figure 1 shows one of the most common rasgueo patterns). In their most basic function, the maracas support the cuatro s accents, although virtuoso maraqueros will greatly elaborate on the basic patterns. A more involved discussion of the relationship between the cuatro rasgueo and the harp s bordoneo (here used as a verb) would require the distinction between two important rhythmic claves or keys in joropo: the clave de corrido (or corrio) shown in Figure 1, and the clave de seis, where the bass strings switch to a rest-quarter-quarter pattern and the cuatro s accented rasgueos fall on the first and fourth beats. Figure 2 is an abstraction of the clave de seis, as codified by joropo scholar Claudia Calderón: 25 Figure 2: Rhythmic key, clave de seis. The characteristic rhythmic interplay of the joropo shown in Figures 1 and 2 represents only the foundational skeleton of what musicians actually perform. Ornamentation, elaboration, meter migrations, and a variety of juegos hemiolados ( hemiolated games ) are expected. The rhythmic interplay that ensues from moment to moment in a joropo is notable. In performance, the interplay between the treble and bass registers 24 For an in-depth discussion of the sesquiáltera see Pedro Van der Lee, Zarabanda: Esquemas rítmicos de acompaǹamiento en 6/8, Latin American Music Review 6, no. 2 (1995): Although in Mexico and other Latin American countries the term sesquiáltera is used interchangeably with hemiola, in this article I will use the term hemiola for the migration of meters from triple to simple duple (from 3/4 to 2/4, for example), which is conspicuous in what joropo scholars call juegos hemiolados (hemiolated games). 25 For an in-depth discussion of these claves, see Calderón Sáenz, Estudio analítico y comparativo, Many informal videos of this basic ensemble and of both claves are found in social engines such as youtube. The reader may look specifically for postings that feature harpist José Gregorio López. 57

58 of the harp becomes increasingly contrapuntal; perhaps in a desire to pursue this counterpoint more freely, many contemporary groups feature a bass player, acoustic or electric, freeing the harp to explore the treble line with more intricacy while playing with the bordones. This constant variation of horizontal and vertical rhythmic interplay is anchored by codified harmonic progressions that musicians learn by heart (much like the 12-bar-blues in the United States) and that are particular to a specific geographic region. The trajectories of these harmonic progressions vary in length and formal structure, as illustrated in these selected examples from Claudia Calderón s catalogue of nearly twenty patterns: 26 Uni-partite patterns: Seis Corrido: (V-I-IV-V) in major Pajarillo Golpe de Seis: (V-I-IV-V) in minor Periquera: (I-I-V7-I-I-I7-I7-IV-IV-IV-II7-V-IV-I-V7-I) in major Bipartite patterns: Merecure : A (I-I7-IV-IV-I-V-I-I) repeated + B (V-V-I-I) four times or more. Tripartite patterns: Chipola: (I-IV/V-I-IV/V-I-IV/V-I-IV/V) and coda: (I7-IV-I-V) and modulation to dominant: (V-I/II-V-I/II-V-I/II-V-I/II-V) and coda: (I-V-Ii-I) and modulation to relative minor: (VI-II/III-VI-II/III-VI-II/III-VI-II/III) and coda: (II-I-III7-VI); da capo. In performance, a pajarillo may begin with a llamado ( call ), an introduction that varies in length, which eventually leads into the main harmonic cycle V-I-IV-V. The ensemble then will anchor itself to the harmonic cycle and release a different interplay of rhythmic and melodic counterpoint with each pass of the cycle. That interplay will also be anchored to one of the rhythmic claves delineated in Figures 1 and 2. Although an extended study of the joropo in performance is not possible here, I will allude to listening examples, which should be accessible as streaming audio from most libraries in universities around the world. In the album Sí, soy llanero (Smithsonian Folkways), 27 track 3, the ensemble, Grupo Cimarrón, begins this pajarillo with a lyrical call, before engaging a harmonic progression rooted in the cadencia andaluza (the well known tetra-sequence of minor-major-major-major triads), which they realize on a clave the corrido. The pajarillo proper, now in the rhythmic clave de seis, starts approximately at 09:24 28, and it is at this point we can hear each cycle of V-I-IV-V come to life anew as all the instruments explore the possibilities of the sesquiáltera, syncopation, juegos hemiolados, timbre percussive effects, etc. The prominent presence of what in functional harmony are called primary chords may invite the moniker of harmonic simplicity often bestowed on folk and popular 26 Calderón Sáenz, Estudio analítico y comparativo, The Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. joropo, lists over fifty patterns, not all of which coincide with the information in Calderón s catalogue. 27 Grupo Cimarrón, Sí, soy llanero: Joropo Music from the Orinoco Plains of Colombia, recorded at Audio Producciones Patrick Mildenberg, Bogotá, Colombia. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings SFW CD 40515, 2004, compact disc. 28 The time cue refers to the streaming library versions, which cue the overall length of the album, not each separate track. 58

59 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... musics. Let us resist this description. Beyond the particular ways we may hear the I-V polarity in the joropo, harmony is simply not the impelling element in this genre. Harmony in joropo is a relatively stable platform on which rhythmic interplay indeed, rhythmic counterpoint stands and becomes the impelling factor. Put in a simpler, if reductive way, in joropo, rhythm uses pitch and harmony to create action, as opposed to the post-enlightenment interplay where melody and harmony create discourse by resting on relatively stable and repetitive rhythms. One could argue that the economy of harmonic change in joropo is crucial; it is what lures the ear toward the dynamic action created by rhythmic counterpoint. The phrase simple harmonies is not germane to a fair musical description of the joropo, and the ear inclined to listen for harmonic richness and syntax will miss the very voice of the genre. Thinking of rhythmic interplay in this way allows us one other important consideration: that several types of goal direction are evident in the various sub-genres of the joropo. 29 An instrumental pajarillo, such as the one on track 3 of Sí, soy llanero, is very much goal directed, although not based on the principle of melodic or tonal return. Joropo listeners have expectations of tension-release related to the interplay between compound duple and triple meters; the interplay must not ground itself for too long on an overall 3/4 pulse; the 6/8 tension against the triple bordoneo is used although not syntactically to play with the listeners sense of tension and release. Tension and release are also achieved through what I call riff counterpoint, the constant juxtaposition of short, melodic gestures that are rich in rhythmic parlance, and that bounce with and against each other among all the instruments. 30 This type of riff counterpoint is particularly evident on track 1 of Sí, soy llanero, which bears the same name as the album. In this track, the added voice of the bandola a pear-shaped, small guitar whose strings may be strummed or plucked provides counter-melodic/rhythmic riffs to the rich texture of the ensemble. The ensemble administers these riffs carefully, at times multiplying them and at times decreasing their number and degree of metrical tension. In addition to what we could call an episodic goal direction, grounded in meter and riff counterpoint, the principle of melodic return may also play a role in some joropos. Often, the codified patterns shown above are actually turned into full da capo forms, where musicians use the principle of return in melody and tonal area to recapitulate an initial section, but often with a more intensified riff counterpoint. In performance, for example, a pajarillo corrido can be goal directed in terms of the return of the opening melody of the vocal line, and, in terms of a heightening of the intensity of contrapuntal texture and percussive effects that accompany the melodic return; both can be heard in track 1 of Sí, soy llanero. This is particularly evident when the vocal element is present and a melodic, directional element is therefore in play. In a different variety of the genre the Eastern Venezuelan joropo termed joropo with refrain an ABAB alternation is evident, one that nevertheless grows in improvisatory intensity 29 A theorization of alternative ways of hearing goal direction (or recombinant teleologies) that has invigorated my own thinking on the matter is Robert Fink, Repeating Ourselves: American Minimal Music as Cultural Practice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). 30 For a more detailed exploration and application of the concept of riff counterpoint, see Ludim Rebeca Pedroza, Merengue Meets the Symphony Orchestra: Interrogating Music as One and the Terrific Musical Experience at the Hollywood Bowl, American Music 32, no. 3 (Fall 2014):

60 with each repetition. Angular and syncopated vocal melodies also take on a directional and quasi-syntactic character in the Eastern joropo with refrain. 31 The distinctiveness of the sonic experience of joropo resides in the various kinds of goal direction it presents, most of which are rhythmically, metrically, and texturally impelling, rather than harmonically directional. 32 In describing such alternative species of goal direction, I have chosen to use the term impelling rather than syntactic or discursive, particularly to emphasize dynamics of tension and release that are not rooted in any analogy to communicative rhetoric or syntax. This constitutes a conceptual invitation to re-code listening rather than a rejection of directed listening. One could even argue that it is through the focused listening of this impelling distinctiveness that key repertoires of the Escuela Nacional Moderna were negotiated effectively. This proposition can be examined more closely through the writings of one of the leaders of the ENM, José Antonio Calcaǹo. Listening to the joropo in Plaza s Sonatina venezolana (1934) Juan Bautista Plaza s Sonatina venezolana (1934) 33 is entrenched in the musicology of Venezuela as one of the early, seminal successes in the domain of composition of the ENM. Calcaǹo explained the particulars of this success in an article-review published in the Nuevo Diario on August 20, In addition to providing insight into the listening sensibilities of Calcaǹo, the review is also significant in that it represents an early scholarly hearing of the joropo, several years before the first ethnomusicological study of the genre (1953). 35 It is reductive of the genre as a whole, yet indicative of Calcaǹo s careful consideration of a joropo as sonic experience. Calcaǹo begins by alluding to Plaza s harmonic treatment, deeming it conservative, because the tonal principles governing the musical form (binary) and the absence of harmonic originality in our folklore so justify it. 36 I read his choice of words an absence of harmonic originality not as a diatribe but as recognition that harmony is not what we listen for in this music. Calcaǹo quickly moves on to the musical elements that have caught his attention, melody and rhythm in particular. He praises Plaza for capturing the intermittent character of joropo melodies, which is perfectly in tune 31 Listen to track 11 Joropo Cruz Acuña in!y Que Viva Venezuela! Maestros del Joropo Oriental (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 2009). 32 See Robert Fink, Goal-Directed Soul? Analyzing Rhythmic Teleology in African American Popular Music, Journal of the American Musicological Society 64, no. 1 (Spring 2011): Fink argues against the antiteleological analytical segregation imposed on many popular musics, and against scholars who have conceded the entire domain of musical structure to the defenders of high art.... As he argues for a number of dance-based genres, I would argue that the joropo does not reside in a non-descript state of jouissance, and does not resist analytical discourse. 33 The sonatina can be found in the international collection Latin-American Art Music for the Piano by Twelve Contemporary Composers (New York: G. Schirmer, 1942). A recording by Arturo Nieto-Dorantes can be found in Itunes; recordings by Beatriz Balzi and Raquel Boldorini can be found in Juan Bautista Plaza s channel in youtube. 34 Most of the text of the review is published in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, Other analyzes of this review are found in Aponte, The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, , , and in Peñín, Plaza y el nacionalismo, See note As quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza,

61 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... with the spirit of our popular dance music, given that in golpes and pasajes the melody almost disappears at times in an arpeggio or in a purely rhythmic fragment In describing the intermittent character of joropo melodies, Calcaǹo has pointed to the element I have called riff counterpoint. He is clearly not disappointed to find an absence of lyrical, directional, syntactic melodies. Calcaǹo s most exuberant language is reserved for the rhythmic aspect. The richness of its rhythm is admirable, precisely as it comes to such a short composition; more than ten rhythmic formulas appear early on, of pure Venezuelan strain, applied with admirable cohesion and spontaneity. 38 He offers musical examples of these rhythmic cells reproduced in Example 1 below which point precisely to the conspicuous games of sesquiáltera central to the joropo. Example 1: Rhythmic Formulas in Juan Bautista Plaza s Sonatina venezolana (1934), as rendered by Miguel Castillo Didier. 39 It is in the rhythm where the expressive weight of this composition resides; it is the rhythm, which infuses that tireless and fluid vitality, that ultra-varied jocundity, that excitement, full of grace and exquisiteness. 40 Calcaǹo s affective exegesis embraces rhythmic richness with a zest comparable to the one implied in centuries of analyses of harmonic complexity in other repertoires. He continues: The musical environment, which Debussy obtained principally through the harmonic element, is in this work 37 Ibid., 394. Pudiera decirse que la melodía es intermitente en la pieza, lo cual está perfectamente de acuerdo con el espíritu de nuestra música popular bailable, ya que en los golpes y pasajes la melodía casi desaparece a ratos en un arpegio o en un simple trozo puramente rítmico. 38 Ibid., 394. La riqueza de su ritmo es admirable, como que tratándose de una composición tan corta, aparecen en la primera más de diez fórmulas rítmicas, de pura cepa venezolana, aplicadas con una justeza y una espontaneidad admirable. 39 Ibid. In an communication dated December 3, 2015, professor Castillo Didier granted his permission for the reproduction of the example, and informed me that he extracted it from a printed version of Calcaǹo s review he in turn obtained from Plaza s widow, Nolita de Plaza. 40 Ibid., Es en ese ritmo donde se concentra la carga expresiva de esta composición; es él quien le insufla esa vitalidad incansable y fluida, esa jocundidad variadísima, esa agitación llena de gracia y exquisitez. 61

62 achieved with rhythm, an always precise and defined rhythm. 41 The comparison to Debussy s accomplishments may be read as a nod to the European literate vanguard and thus as part of the symbolic enactment where self-colonialism impersonates the civilizing project of modernity. It is well known, after all, that Debussy was admired in the circles of the ENM. 42 Nevertheless, Calcaǹo is a scholar who sees himself carving out a space for aesthetic autonomy, and under this light, the nod to Debussy is meaning ful in that he recognizes in Debussy s musical environment a novel way of making music impelling, something Plaza has achieved by capitalizing on the distinct features of the joropo. In summary, the question of how to create the national involved, in its complicity with the nation-building project, the affective, hedonic practice of reflective listening in relation to vernacular musics and doing so with unprecedented attention and gusto. In this context, reflective listening is my conceptual alternative to the conventional score- -centered analysis, as it involves not exclusively the analysis of a score, but the focused listening of musics that are conventionally rendered in aural environments as the joropo still is. Even when these musics migrate to the academic domain, score-analysis still demands reflective listening, because performers recognize the joropo when they are learning the music. In the next section, my own reflective listening of Laya s Sonata venezolana will take the form of a narrative from the perspective of a pianist raised in academic environments both in Venezuela and the U.S where sonata form is heavily codified. But I was also raised listening to joropos in the schoolyard, at friends ranches, and not least of all, in the concert hall. Mine is thus the reflective listening of an agent negotiating multiple capitals. Musical Capital in José Clemente Laya s Sonata Venezolana (1946) In the academic space carved out by the ENM, musicians invited critics and the public to listen to the elements of the joropo that they experienced as distinctive and loaded with musical capital, that is, with the potential to be musical materials of impelling force on the listening stage. A little over a decade after Plaza s Sonatina venezolana helped establish the joropo in the academic environment, a student of Sojo and one of the early-generation graduates of the ENM, José Clemente Laya, produced his Sonata venezolana (1946). 43 Its first movement, titled simply joropo, can be heard as an example of the newly created musical capital. Laya s oeuvre indicates that, like his fellow graduates, he was systematically trained in the rudiments of the motet, the suite, the fugue, and the sonata, among other 41 Ibid., El ambiente musical de la obra, que Debussy obtenía principalmente con el elemento armónico, está aquí logrado con el ritmo, ritmo siempre preciso y bien definido. 42 José Clemente Laya states: As disciples of maestro Sojo, our formation began under the auspices of Mozart, with our eyes turned toward Debussy as the supreme objective. As cited in Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. Laya Morales, José Clemente. 43 José Clemente Laya, Sonata Venezolana para Piano (Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1991). 62

63 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... standard Renaissance, Baroque, Classic, and Romantic forms. 44 His Sonata venezolana (1946) features three movements: Joropo (Allegro) in sonata form, Canción (Adagio) in ternary form, and Bolera (Allegretto), a rondo. As Example 2 shows, his joropo begins with the expected call, where the bordoneo bass pattern is clearly present in the left hand, and the accents on beats one and three are felt in the pitch-register drop from E to B. Example 2: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), mm As Example 3 shows, after this four-measure call, the long held note in the upper voice of m. 5 signals the emergence of a lyrical, directional melody, which soon enough acquires the angular and syncopated semblance of some joropo melodies (particularly the Eastern varieties). Yet, the pianistic language is contrapuntal, with other melodic fragments present and constantly traveling between three and four voices. Laya hints at the cuatro s percussive closed strumming (labeled on m. 5) through the dissonant minor seconds, which roughly coincide with the rhythmic clave de corrido shown in Figure 1. Above all, the relentless, motoric activity at the suggested tempo poses a veritable challenge to the performer, who experiences the contrapuntal juggling of the entire ensemble in one body. Example 3 brings attention to the home key 46 of the movement, E major, and shows a relatively continuous slice of the exposition, which I will now discuss. 44 For example, Laya s works include, among others, the orchestral Suite venezolana (1947), the chamber Fuga para cuarteto de cuerdas (1947), the Suite al estilo barroco, sobre tema propuesto por Vicente Emilio Sojo (1946), and the Sonatina para Rosita (1946). For a complete catalogue see Peǹín and Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. Laya Morales, José Clemente. 45 Musical content and expression marks in all Laya examples are based on the 1991 edition published by Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo in Caracas (cited in note 43); engraving and publication in this essay were undertaken with permission from the same institution. 46 I am using the terminology codified in William E. Caplin, Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 1998). 63

64 Example 3: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), mm A musician raised in Venezuela will recognize the open strings of the cuatro in the left hand gesture found in measure 13. In the most common, reentrant tuning 64

65 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... of the instrument, these pitches are A3, D4, F-sharp4, and B3. 47 School children are taught to sing these four notes to the words cambur pintón ( ripening banana ), as rendered in Figure 3: Figure 3: Common tuning in the cuatro with mnemonic syllabication. Playing the passage that begins in measure 5 provokes additional aural reminiscences. The floating melody in the upper voice launches itself on a sustained D-sharp, which to my ears recalls the long sustained pitch with which vocalists begin some joropos. 48 The sustained D-sharp releases itself into a syncopated melody in m. 6, which then spins itself off by alternating between ascending riffs, sustained pitches, and syncopated and hemiolated bits (mm. 13 and 14). Supporting this upper melody is the bass line, which emphasizes the first and third beats by drawing the ears (and fingers) to the lower register (mm. 5 and 7). In subsequent measures, this bass line impersonates the rich bordoneo characteristic of virtuoso harpists (or bass players) in joropo, who far from repeating the same two or three-note riff, elaborate upon it. The pianist must also negotiate several counter-riffs that compete in interest with the upper-voice melody, a contrapuntal practice notable in Eastern joropos, where the harp treble counterpoints with the vocalist. 49 The riff counterpoint is further enhanced through the sesquiáltera games of tension-release evident from measure to measure; for example, the juxtaposition of the 3/4 and 6/8 gestures in mm. 6 and 7 comes to a brief release in the solitary ascending gesture of measure 8. This ascending gesture continues to play a releasing role in its alternation with subsequent sesquiáltera sonorities in measures 9 and 11. Having identified the fundamental joropo elements that populate the pitch and rhythm fabric, one will begin to ponder the larger structural patterns that frame this fabric. Although sonorities that invite the hands and ears to identify with a functional home key are present (as in mm , 15 16, 22 23, in Example 3), clear leading-tone motions to that key (E) are notably absent. Yet, pivotal arrivals at E major sonorities are immediately preceded by conspicuous juegos hemiolados, as indicated in measures 13 16, and (Example 3). In a way, Laya is establishing the on-beat 3/4 bordoneo as a rhythmic tonic, 50 using the preceding hemiola duple groupings 47 On the history of the cuatro and its tuning, see Calzavara, Historia de la Música en Venezuela, chapter 8; and Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, Sobre el origen hispano de nuestro cuatro, Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 4 (1981): Listen to track 1 of Sí, soy llanero (cited in note 27). This long, opening sustained pitch is often found in the estilo recio (hard style) of the plains region; the melody, however, afterwards, acquires a more active and lyrical profile, such as that often found in the Eastern regions of Venezuela (the joropo oriental). Indeed, the melodies of plains joropo tend to be made up of short riffs that facilitate poetic improvisation and virtuoso improvisation. Laya s melody appears to be a compound melody of various joropo styles. 49 For example, listen to track 14, Golpe de Arpa y Estribillo in!y Que Viva Venezuela! 50 See Fink s proposition regarding tonic rhythm in his Goal-Directed Soul?,

66 as rhythmic cadential gestures. This practice continues in the ensuing measures (not shown in Example 3). In measure 27, we encounter an F-sharp major ninth chord that anticipates the expected modulation to the dominant in a sonata form. This subordinate key, B major, arrives unequivocally in m. 44, with an indication of cantabile, an unmistakable reference to the change in character expected in late-classical and early romantic subordinate themes. As shown in Example 4, this theme maintains a counterpoint between the left hand and right hand, but presents more constant patterns of syncopation and angular melodies that provide it with a distinctive identity. Most notably, the first four measures of this cantabile (mm ) are heavily grounded on a 6/8 pulse, which this time is anticipated in the cadential figures of mm. 40 to 43, suggesting not only a modulation to the dominant B but also to the 6/8 meter. Indeed, 6/8 pervades the entire cantabile, and the 3/4 bordoneos thus become the stuff of tension. Example 4: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), cantabile theme in B major begins in m. 44. A double bar and repeat signs point to the first 75 measures as the exposition of a sonata form. As shown in Example 5, measure 76 leads us into the development, which builds on the distinctive cambur pintón motif, now in B major, treated canonically and sequentially. 66

67 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... Example 5: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), beginning of the development. These sequences continue for 25 measures before arriving at a concerto-like cadenza, evoking romantic piano practice. The cadenza takes us back to the opening call in a clear recapitulation; nevertheless, the return of the four-measure opening call and the pitch-by-pitch recapitulation of the music shown in Example 3, all happen in the key of A major rather than the tonic E. As Example 6 shows, the A major area smoothly takes us to its own dominant, E major, the overall tonic, in the voice of the cantabile theme. This type of return-emphasis is similar to the ones found in some balanced binary forms of the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti. (This is precisely the comparison Calcaǹo makes in reviewing Plaza s 1934 Sonatina venezolana, a comparison that, for Aponte, reflects Calcaǹo s desire to ground the sonatina in the neoclassical movement of the twentieth century, and ultimately, in an overall narrative of Western music history.) 51 Example 6: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), recapitulation of cantabile theme. As Example 7 demonstrates, Laya closes the movement with the same riffs that closed the exposition. These riffs only obliquely drive the leading tone toward the tonic; rather, they tip-toe on pitches of the dominant, ultimately leading to a closing third-less E vertical structure elaborated by an F-sharp appoggiatura. 51 Aponte, The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, ,

68 Example 7: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), end of the movement, mm I will end this reflective listening by summarizing some of the ways in which Laya s joropo negotiates the codes and techniques of the international music field. First, Laya s tonal fabric springs from the ubiquitous melodic pattern that announces itself in m. 13: the cambur pintón motif from the cuatro s open strings. Revisiting the call of the movement shown in Example 2, it is notable that the pitch relations from the onset are rooted in the intervallic relations of this motif. Moreover, the bordoneo descending figure reaffirms the quartal identity of the cambur pintón motif. The major-7th chord that inaugurates the primary-key theme in m. 5 as well as numerous tall chords through out the movement could be heard as directly inspired by the impressionistic language so admired in the early nationalist circles of Venezuela. Or, they could simply echo the conspicuous major-second sonorities that are suggested by the tuning of the cuatro. Likewise, the preponderance of angular melodies and the importance of the open fourth and fifth intervals square well with the initial call and the intervallic identity of cambur pintón. All in all, Laya is composing with the tones of a motif, to borrow Schoenberg s words, grounding the musical fabric in a cohesive pitch relationality borne by the bass bordoneo and the cuatro. Second, in his use of sonata form, it is notable that Laya chooses to recapitulate the opening theme in the subdominant, a tonal center that elevates the gesture of the initial rising fourth of the cambur pintón. This choice aligns with the quartal-intervallic universe Laya has created, one that I have attempted to visually represent in Figure 4. This visual conceptualization encapsulates my hearing of the E, not as a mono-linear tonic, but as a pivot pitch between B and A that relates to the three main areas of the sonata form in quartal relationships, which in turn harken to both the cambur pintón and the bordoneos of the bass harp strings. This should not suggest that goal direction plays a weak role in the movement. The recapitulation in A rather than E does not debilitate the sense of return, nor does it clash with the goal-directed sensibilities of the joropo itself, in which the principle of return is not foreign. Rather, the return in the subdominant emphasizes homeness a sense of arrival through intervallic relationships rather than through a single pitch tonic. Third, Laya dispenses with the gradual intensification of riff counterpoint and juegos hemiolados, as is customary in popular joropos; instead, he uses these elements as 68

69 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... Figure 4: Quartal relationships in the sonata framework of Laya s joropo. impelling devices of tension/release, not only from measure to measure, but in the cadential motions toward, and as markers of identity for each of the sonata-form themes. Finally, Laya s appeal to virtuosity arguably a requirement of the international music field at the turn of the century seems to spring from the distinctiveness of the joropo as well. Under the pianist s fingers, the visceral, motoric energy of the joropo comes to life and the rhythmic counterpoint is pervasive, enveloping the performer in the jocundity of the genre. The technical challenge is augmented by the juxtaposition of a fully directional melody with the intermittent counterpoint of the inner voices and the bordoneo. In this article I have shown how the pitch fabric, the sonata form, and other elements commonly associated with the autonomous field of music, are absorbed and transformed by the joropo s presence. Indeed, it would be difficult to argue that Laya harvested the joropo in order to insert isolated melodies or rhythms into the thematic framework of the sonata form. That Laya, like many of his colleagues and teachers with other works, chose to call this a Venezuelan sonata (sonata venezolana) and the movement squarely by the name of the dance rather than the more abstract allegro, is perhaps telling of the particular beliefs invested on these sonic objects. This brings us full circle to our initial inquiry: In the creation of an emancipated aesthetic, what questions did the ENM ask? If one of these was how do we create the national, another was how do we concurrently create the modern-artistic. One answer may be said to have been Calcaǹo s concept of stylization, which also provides fodder for a closing platform that may facilitate future study of the music field in Venezuela. 69

70 The Joropo in the Music Field: Stylization, Elevation, and Multiple Capitals What is truly astonishing is the achievement of an elevated stylization with our very own musical elements, given that these elements present us with difficulties that initially appear insurmountable, as one presumes to handle them in superior spheres without muddling their character. This is something we, Venezuelan composers, have been striving toward for years, and are only now reaching; in past works we were able to stylize insufficiently, so much so that those works barely deserved to be considered the individual work of a creative artist, given that we could almost confuse them with pieces of pure popular strain. 52 Calcaǹo s praise for Plaza s 1934 Sonatina venezolana employs rhetoric that may invite readings of self-colonialism. Indeed, today, the term elevation conjures imperialist baggage, particularly the idea of simple vernacular musics being elaborated with the academy s tools of complexity. A Bourdieuian perspective invites us to resist this direct projection of the fields of power and class struggle onto the autonomous field. On the one hand, acknowledging that Calcaǹo s rhetoric (and that of his colleagues) contains a degree of condescension toward popular musics should not obfuscate the implications of the very concerns he is expressing: The originality and artistry, i.e. the coveted stylization associated with the superior sphere of autonomy cannot be achieved at the expense of a muddling of the character of popular musics. Plaza speaks in similar terms, when alluding to composers running the risk of destroying the intimate vitality of the popular arts. 53 As I have argued, Calcaǹo s reflective listening of Plaza s Sonatina venezolana more than suggests a deep respect and affection for the inherent qualities of the joropo in its own social environment. To put it simply, the ENM chose the joropo not because they read potential complexity in its simplicity, but quite the contrary, because they read it as inherently complex, rich, and exuberant. All in all, in the universe of belief of the ENM, we could read the nascent (Venezuelan) autonomous musical work as a conceptual technology a carving tool to be used with care and the superior sphere as a platform of display the earned spotlight of autonomy for the artist and his/her affections. On the other hand, the autonomous field is a social arena, even as it operates according to its own logic. In Venezuela as in other Latin American countries the music field was not forged entirely by wealthy artists in opposition to a popular artisanal 52 Quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, Translation and emphasis mine. Pero lo que sí raya en lo asombroso es haber logrado esa elevada estilización con nuestros elementos musicales propios; pues estos ofrecen dificultades a primera vista insalvables, cuando se pretende manejarlos dentro de esferas superiores, sin que pierdan nada de su carácter. Eso lo venimos buscando los compositores venezolanos desde hace años, y solo ahora es cuando se empieza a lograr; pues en las obras anteriores a esta que nos ocupa solo se había podido estilizar en un grado insuficiente, tanto que apenas merecían esas obras ser consideradas como obra individual de un artista creador, pues casi se confundían con las obras netamente populares. 53 Juan Bautista Plaza, Apuntes sobre estética Musical Venezolana, Revista Literaria no. 35 (Cubagua: Caracas, 1939): 10 12; quoted in Peñin, Plaza y el nacionalismo,

71 L. R. PEDROZA THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA S MUSICAL MODERNITY... field; it was claimed and built largely by musician-artisans, who had themselves been forged in the sub-fields of the church, the dance floor, and the civic band, among many others. Indeed, the old, wealthy mantuano class cultivated music only as a diversion and did not consider its professional pursuit appropriate to its rank. The acknowledged leader of the ENM, Vicente Emilio Sojo, was born in this artisanal circle, in a family of limited means whose mixed-race background has been explored by musicologists. 54 Sojo s training in his hometown of Guatire took place with Regulo Rico, church composer, member of the Unión Filarmónica (which cultivated a variety of choral and orchestral repertoires), estudiantina and band director, performer in fiestas and serenatas, in short, a musician versed in popular music genres and Mozart and Beethoven alike a musician of multiple musical capitals. 55 In the context of this artisanal music field, Calcan`o s historicism which was only touched upon in this article also provokes interesting questions; Calcan`o is indeed constructing a continuity between the ENM s output, the joropo, and the Scarlattian school of clavecinists, perhaps in an effort to highlight Venezuelan tradition as a protagonist in the grand historical narrative of the international field. 56 Post Calcan`o musicologists such as Alberto Calzavara and Mario Milanca Guzmán, however, consider this a socially grounded continuity, not merely a historicist construction. Their research has brought to light the documented reality that since colonial times, native-venezuelans, slaves, mulattos, poor whites in short, members of the artisanal class have been the recipients of European-based musical training (particularly counterpoint) in the harp, the vihuela, and the organ. 57 The work of these scholars suggests that it was in the very bodies of these musicians as opposed to in an abstract interchange between fields where that training mutated with the Afro-Venezuelan and Native-Venezuelan practices that were also theirs. In short, these artisanal musicians accumulated a multiplicity of musical capitals while navigating the difficult socio-political arenas imposed on them. The ENM s first generation of graduates was populated by many musicians who were versed in the artisanal field of music making, and who claimed their autonomous space by engaging in a reflective listening of the myriad musical manifestations they themselves practiced. They explored the joropo and other vernacular musics with the conceptual technologies of absolute music: the sonata, the symphony, the suite, the fugue. Theirs was a nationalism of immense eclecticism. 58 As they gained exposure to the international field of music, they expanded their objects of musical affection and cautioned themselves against an excessive cult to folklore 59. To this day, the music field in Venezuela does not define itself in opposition to the popular field; rather, it is generously populated by artists who move comfortably between the spaces of academic and popular musics, and who invest heavily in both (Aldemaro Romero being an 54 See in particular Guido Acuña, Maestro Sojo (Caracas: Editorial Arte, 1985), José Peǹín, Regulo Rico, Maestro de Sojo, Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 38 (1998): See Aponte s argument in relation to this in his The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, , Calzavara, Historia de la Música en Venezuela, 59 60; Mario Milanca Guzmán, La música venezolana: de la colonia a la república (Caracas: Monte Ávila Latinoamericana, 1994), 119 and especially the section titled Los pardos en la música colonial venezolana. 58 For a discussion of the background musicianship and the overall tendencies in the compositions of the ENM s early graduates many of which were decidedly non-nationalist see Aponte, The Invention of the National, Peǹin, Plaza y el nacionalismo,

72 example). This is an autonomous field carved out of complex affections and complicities with multiple capitals that reside in the singular body of each musician. As much in its repertoire as in its difficult past and present dynamics, it poses compelling challenges for future studies of music as emancipated aesthetic. POVZETEK Joropo, ples, ki ga ima večina Venezuelcev za svoj nacionalni simbol, se je mednarodni javnosti predstavil zlasti z deli Aledamara Romera in s posredništvom dirigenta Gustava Dudamela. Romerove, a tudi druge akademske predelave joropa temeljijo na estetskih predlogah, ki so jih uveljavile ključne skladbe Šole nacionalne moderne (ENM) v 30-ih in 40-ih letih minulega stoletja v Venezueli. Ena izmed njih, Sonatina venezolana Juana Bautista Plaze (1934), je v muzikoloških krogih naletela na veliko posluha in dosegla tudi mednarodno občinstvo s pomočjo posnetkov in različnih izdaj. Druga dela, kot denimo Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye (1946), pa so sicer navedena v mednarodnih katalogih. V dialogu s kulturnima teoretikoma, Néstorjem Garcío Canclinijem in Pierrom Bourdieujem, članek argumentira, da je ENM joropo prepoznal kot po sebi bogat glasbeni izraz in prenesel njegovo glasbeno navzočnost ne zgolj s tem, da bi odbral posamezne ritme in melodije iz sveta ljudske pesmi in plesa v glasbene dvorane akademskega sveta in na odre mednarodne klasične glasbe. V teoretskem smislu je šola ENM ustanovila samostojno področje glasbe v Venezueli, delno prav s kodifikacijo glasbenih prvin joropa, za katere so njeni predstavniki menili, da zahtevajo pozornost umetniške avtonomije. Začetna kontekstualizacija v članku se osredini na simbolno projekcijo nacionalizma in modernosti v ENM-jevem temelju, a hkrati razkriva»afekcije«in»razloge«, ki so vodile do tega, da si je ENM izbral prav joropo za središče svoje glasbene estetike. Zavoljo zvočne in retorične osnove srednji del raziskuje t. i. joropo llanero (»nižinski joropo«); njegove tradicionalne instrumente, in sicer cuatro in harfo, sesquiáltero sopostavitev dvojnih in trojnih taktov, refrenski kontrapunkt, juegos hemiolodos (igre hemiol) in vrsto ciljnih usmerjenosti, ki so značilne za žanr. Ta odsek pojasnjuje, zakaj je ENM določene značilnosti joropa slišal kot glasbeni kapital, torej kot elemente poganjajoče jasnosti, ki bi lahko bili dejavniki v osnovanju emancipirane estetike. Javna ocena in analiza, ki jo je za slavno Sonatino venezolano (1934) skladatelja Juana Bautiste Plaze zapisal José Antonio Calcaǹo, prikazuje mnoge značilne elemente. Zaključni del raziskuje nekoliko manj znan joropo Joséja Clementeja Laye, enega od učencev ENM-ja iz 40-ih let 20. stoletja. Prvi stavek Layeve Sonate venezolane sonatne oblike pretkano združuje kode in tehnike mednarodne klasične glasbe s tistimi, ki so značilne za joropo. Najprej zveneča struktura stavka izide iz četvernih razmerij, ki so značilne za uglašenost cuatra (A3, D4, Fis4 in B3). Nato Laya izbere ponovitev glavne teme v subdominanti, tonalnem centru, ki privzdigne gesto začetnega dviga kvarte v uglašenosti cuatra. Naposled Laya učinkovito osnuje tekmujoče 3/4 in 6/8 takte kot polarne elemente, ki spremljajo teme na toniki in dominanti. Pod črto lahko rečemo, da Laya ponazarja, kako so ti skladatelji preoblikovali okvir mednarodnih glasbenih sredstev za doseganje avtonomije zlasti sonatne oblike s karakterističnimi elementi joropa. My sincere thanks go to the reviewers of this journal for their comments, and to Roberto Ojeda Tovar, Coordinador General Estratégico de la Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo for his kind and prompt processing of the permissions involved in my engraving of excerpts from Laya s Sonata venezolana. 72

73 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR UDK DOI: /mz Dimitar Ninov Univerza v Teksasu Texas State University Functional Nature of the Cadential Six-Four Funkcionalna narava kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda Prejeto: 15. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: harmonija, akord, funkcija, kadenca IZVLEČEK Prispevek predstavlja idejo, da kadenčni kvartsekstakord ni zgolj dominanta z dvema akordu tujima tonoma, ampak edinstven bi-funkcijski akord, ki pooseblja boj med toniko in dominanto. Takšen koncept omogoča razlago vseh mogočnih pojavnih oblik tega akorda v glasbeni literaturi. Received: 15th October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: harmony, chord, function, cadential ABSTRACT In this article I support the idea that the cadential six-four is not a mere dominant with two non-chord tones, but a unique bi-functional chord which embodies a conflict between tonic and dominant. This concept allows the explanation of all possible appearances of the cadential six-four in the music literature. In most harmony sources available today, the cadential six-four chord is conventionally interpreted as a dominant with two accented non-chord tones in the form of a double suspension or appoggiatura. 1 This widely shared notion is summarized in Walter Piston s statement that this is actually a dominant chord in which the sixth and the fourth form appoggiature to the fifth and third respectively. 2 While this linear approach provides an illustration of the typical manner the cadential six-four is employed, it falls in contradiction with occasional appearances of that chord where its structural equality with the tonic triad is being explored, i.e. when non-chord tones or chromatic chords resolve into the cadential six-four as if they resolve into a tonic. Thus, the cadential six-four s capacity to serve as a point of resolution to be embellished as a chord on its own becomes an audible argument against the claim that this chord is nothing more than a mere dominant. 1 In this essay the general concept of appoggiatura as an accented non-chord tone, regardless of melodic contour, is adopted. 2 Walter Piston, Harmony (New York: W. W. Norton Piston 1941),

74 Along this line, I felt the need to offer a broader concept of the cadential six-four chord that covers theoretically all of its possible occurrences. This idea, briefly mentioned in some harmony books from the past century, and shared by a number of musicians with whom I had discussions, expanded into the current essay. Here I maintain the idea that the cadential six-four is a bi-functional chord: a tonic above a dominant bass. The difference between two non-chord tones to the dominant and a tonic above a dominant bass is essential in the understanding of phenomena that do not fit the usual description of the cadential six-four. More specifically, I will examine the following situations: 1) the nature of the perfect fourth in a six-four chord and beyond; 2) the cadential six-four compared to a genuine dominant with suspensions; 3) the resolution of non-chord tones into the cadential six-four; 4) the resolution of altered chords into the cadential six-four; 5) the similarity between the cadential six-four and the accented passing tonic six-four; and 6) the extension and free arpeggiation of the cadential six-four. The last situation on my list has been briefly inspected by David Beach in his third article on the cadential six-four. 3 However, he describes the cadential six-four as a plain dominant chord. The polemics among David Beach, Joel Lester, and Allen Cadwallader mainly concern the issue of whether or not the cadential six-four may be a legitimate support of scale degree 3 in the fundamental line, as understood in Schenkerian terms. 4 In my essay I offer a different perspective of analysis concerning the functional ambivalence of the six-four and its potential to serve as a point of resolution. While my ambition is to arrive at a compelling theoretical solution, the deliberations and the examples provided herein are not exhaustive. In the Mozart excerpt given below, Joel Lester hears the cadential six-four syntactically as a collection of non-harmonic tones on the arrival of the dominant. 5 David Beach, on the other hand, hears the same chord followed by V as one of two chords representing a single harmonic function (V), and he adds that the common bass note is root of both chords. 6 On my part, I hear the chord in question as an arpeggiated tonic triad above a dominant bass: Example 1: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in G, K. 283 (I), measures David Beach, More on the Six-Four, Journal of Music Theory 34/2 (1990b). 4 See David Beach, The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Fundamental Line, Journal of Music Theory 34/1 (1990a); Beach, More on the Six-Four, ; Joel Lester, Reply to David Beach, Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992); Allen Cadwallader, More on Scale Degree Three and the Cadential Six-Four. Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992). 5 Lester, Reply to David Beach, Beach, The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Fundamental Line,

75 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR Notice how the tone G in the left hand (which is deemed to be a suspension producing a dissonant fourth) leaps upward to become a seventh of the dominant chord. Leonard Ratner writes in his textbook of harmony that the cadential six-four chord is built from the tonic triad, with the fifth of the chord in the bass. It has the special quality of being unstable, so that the upper voices, the root and the third of the triad, tend to settle downward by step into dominant harmony. 7 Ratner claims the cadential six-four within the sphere of the tonic, but he points out its instability caused by the second inversion. Alexander Raichev goes further by stating that, functionally, it is best to regard the cadential six-four chord as a bi-functional sonority in which a conflict between two functions is taking place. This creates tension, so characteristic for bifunctional chords, which resolves in the next stable function [stable triad] that occurs by necessity. 8 Similar position is taken by Plamen Arabov who writes: The cadential six-four has a tonic structure; functional surrounding by S (sometimes T) and D, and functional meaning prevailing dominant function with a tonic layer above. 9 Note that he says a tonic layer above not two non-chord tones above and the difference between the two categories proves significant, as we shall see further. Arnold Schoenberg position is close to that of Raichev s and Arabov s. He notices: There is then in the six-four chord a conflict between its outward form, its sound, and its inner constitution. Whereas its outward form indicates, for example, the Ist degree, its constitution, its instinct demands the Vth degree. 10 Two main points attract our attention in the citations above: 1) none of the four authors mentions the presence of a dissonant fourth in the structure of the cadential six-four; and 2) none of them thinks that the cadential six-four contains non-chord tones. I will address these points separately further down. On the Nature of the Perfect Fourth Behind the perception of the cadential six-four as a dominant chord with one consonant and one dissonant suspension (appoggiatura) stands the notion of the perfect fourth as a dissonant interval under certain conditions namely, when the lowermost voice in the texture is involved in the formation of that interval. This principle stems from the aesthetics of the old masters of polyphony, and it has become a major argument for musicians who treat the cadential six-four as a dissonant structure. With the advent of homophony it has been realized, however, that the employment of major and minor triads in second inversion does not necessarily create the same perception of dissonance as it does in a typical 16th century polyphonic situation. For example, Jean-Philippe Rameau considered the perfect fourth a consonance under all circumstances, as he wrote: Similarly, the fourth arises from the inversion of the perfect chord 7 Leonard G. Ratner, Harmony: Structure and Style (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), Alexander Raitchev, Хармония [Harmony], 3 rd ed. (Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo, 1974), Plamen Arabov, Хармония с аранжиране за хор [Harmony with Arrangements for Choir] (Sofia: Muzika, 1991), Arnold Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, trans. Roy Carter (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1922] 1983),

76 and, being a consonance, its progression is unlimited. 11 In support of his study, Rameau cites Gioseffo Zarlino, who, in his fundamental treatise Le istitutioni harmoniche (1558) treats the fourth as a consonance in practice because it is the inversion of the fifth. 12 In his deliberations, Zarlino, according to Rameau, leans on the scholarship of Ancient Greeks and on the calculation of interval ratios. In accord with the notion of the perfect fourth as a consonant interval, Rameau considers the six-four a consonant chord which has the same root (fundamental bass) as the perfect chord it is derived from. However, he points out that both the sixth chord and the six-four chord must be called imperfect because their properties differ from those of their source. 13 Therefore, Rameau admits that chord inversions do not possess the stability of the root position triad. In his article An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chords, Norman Wick draws a contrast between the aesthetics of Jean Philippe Rameau and Gottfried Weber, on the one hand, and the ideas of Carl Philip Emanuel Bach and Johann Heinichen, on the other. The former two musicians supported the vertical notion of the six-four chord, and the latter two favored the more linear approach of the figured bass tradition. 14 According to Bach and Heinichen, the fourth above a bass tone is always a dissonance, and their opinion is in agreement with the principles of the strict 16th century counterpoint. This view, strongly supported by such influential writers as Heinrich Schenker and Carl Schachter seems to have become a prevailing notion today. Norman Wick summarizes the concept about the dissonant fourth: The fourth above the bass in a six-four functions ordinarily as a suspension, appoggiatura, passing tone, or neighboring tone. It is a dissonant tone whether it is called a fourth or an eleventh. This fact remains true despite any arguments about which pitch is acoustically stronger in the vertical sense (the bass or the fourth above it), and despite any assertions that the six-four is just a less perfect form of some root position triad. 15 Following the general logic of Norman Wick s statement, the reader seems to be left with two options to choose from: a. Genuine triads in second inversion do not exist what looks like a second inversion triad is actually a dissonant, accidentally obtained sonority that can never be considered a substitute for a root position chord; b. Genuine triads in second inversion do exist, but they are dissonant derivatives of a root position chord, even if this chord is a consonant triad. I think that both options suggested above are highly problematic because their logic stems from an unquestionable generalization on the quality of the perfect fourth 11 Jean-Phiplippe Rameau, Treatise on Harmony, trans. and ed. Philip Gossett (New York: Dover, [1722] 1971), Ironically, Rameau treats the eleventh as a dissonant interval that should be prepared and resolved, since for him the procedure of its derivation is different than the one producing the fourth (ibid., 92 93). 13 Rameau, Treatise on Harmony, Noramn L. Wick, An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chrods, Theoria 5 (1991): Ibid.,

77 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR when it includes the bass note. This logic ignores such factors as texture (polyphonic or homophonic), metric organization (strong or weak), and context (surrounding harmony). Moreover, it implies that the so-called arpeggiated six-four chord is also a dissonant sonority. It seems as though Norman Wick hears dissonant chords all over the place in those polkas, waltzes and marches which involve arpeggiated major and minor triads...it would not be an exaggeration to say that this implication goes beyond common sense. If Norman Wick were generalizing on such intervals as the second, the tritone or the seventh dissonances whose inversions yield other dissonances one could hardly object his position from tonal music s perspective. But when an absolute conviction is expressed about the dissonant qualities of an interval whose inversion is a perfect consonance, a reasonable doubt arises. Schoenberg comments on the striking contradiction between the claim that the fourth above a bass note must be a dissonance and the principle that the inversion of every perfect consonance yields a perfect consonance. He exclaims: That is too contradictory, not simple enough to be natural. 16 I cannot help agreeing with him. When I compare Norman Wick s concept of the dissonant fourth with the position expressed by J. P. Rameau, certain thoughts cross my mind. Rameau s arguments that the inversion of a consonance produces another consonance and that a triad has two legitimate inversions stand up to reason. He did not feel the need to evaluate the quality of the fourth in a polyphonic texture, referring to a time when the principles of functional harmony had not crystallized yet. Having raised a reasonable suspicion about the true duality of the perfect fourth, Arnold Schoenberg questions the dissonant character of the six-four chord with the following words: Nevertheless, whereas in the actual dissonance tones sound together that can never in any arrangement be consonant, the tones of the six-four chord are in other arrangements absolutely consonant (triad, sixth chord). The demand of the six-four chord for resolution, to be treated as a dissonance, is thus by no means as stormy as that of a real dissonance. The six-four chord and the actual dissonance have only this in common, that in both lies a conflict that attracts attention, that seems to have a right to special consideration, to special treatment. 17 The assertion that [major and minor] six-four chords do not possess an actual dissonance is essential in Schoenberg s statement. With this claim he seems to challenge those who attribute a chameleonic character to the perfect fourth but cannot explain convincingly the cause of its alleged metamorphosis. Let us compare the metrically strong or accented six-four chord with the weak or unaccented passing, pedal, and arpeggiated six-four chords: Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, Ibid., The arpeggiated six-four occasionally occurs on an accented beat, but this does not alter its nature of a second inversion triad substituting for a root position triad. 77

78 Example 2: Cadential, Passing, and Pedal Six-Four Chords. Example 3: Arpeggiated Six-Four Chords. Naturally, an arpeggiated six-four chord obtained through a melodic figure in the bass, represents an inversion of a root position triad. This is true even when this chord appears on an accented or relatively accented beat. Leonard Ratner confirms this concept by writing: If the bass voice has melodic ornamentation of a triadic type, it may create a six-four position during the course of its action. In such cases, the six-four position needs to be bracketed by stronger positions of the same chord. 19 According to Norman Wick, however, we are supposed to hear a number of dissonant triads in the example above, since for him and many others any fourth above a bass tone is a dissonant interval. I have become curious about the process of acoustic and functional perception of genre music on the part of musicians who claim that all six-four chords are dissonant... Addressing the functional qualities of the passing and the pedal six-fours, Alexander Raichev writes: As far as the function of the weak six-four chords is concerned, the problem is relative. When the harmonies change in a slow tempo, we perceive the six-four as an inversion of a certain function. In a moderate or especially fast tempo the weak six-four is functionally assimilated by the surrounding chords. 20 Regarding the weak six-four chords discussed above, Ratner s and Raichev s statements reflect a situation that has been observed in the homophonic style for a long 19 Ratner, Harmony: Structure and Style, Raitchev, Хармония [Harmony],

79 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR time: the weak six-four chords are smooth and unimpressive, and the special conditions they are placed in help them to express the original function of the triad they stem from, with a minimum degree of ambiguity. In short, the weak six-four chords (major and minor) do not produce a dissonance, even though there is a perfect fourth between the bass and the root of the chord. But this is not all. Even in the cadential six-four chord, where the potential disagreement between the bass and the outer structure is made prominent by a metric accent and a connection to a dominant chord, the presence of a real dissonance is hard to prove. One simple acoustic phenomenon stands in the way: the structural equality of the six-four sonority with the tonic triad. This factor is explored compositionally in a variety of manners. Therefore, at best, one may argue that the cadential six-four possesses a simulated (or feigned) dissonance which reflects the functional duality embodied in that chord. This suggestion echoes Schoenberg s opinion on the difference between the six-four chord and the actual dissonance, which has been quoted above. The three principal intervals which stem directly from the fundamental tone in the harmonic tone series and represent no inversion of previously existing relationships are the perfect octave, the perfect fifth, and the major third. The perfect fourth is an inversion of the perfect fifth which is the third harmonic tone, produced directly by the source. Led by the observation that the inversion of a true consonance produces another true consonance, of which proof is given within the span of the first eight harmonics 21, I propose the following evaluation of the qualities of the perfect fourth in various circumstances. A. Generally viewed, the perfect fourth is a true consonance. It may be perceived as a simulated dissonance when: a) it is a non-chord tone; b) it is a member of a chord whose dissonant quality depends on a genuine dissonance such a second, a seventh, or others (diminished or augmented intervals, for example). c) it is a member of a typical accented six-four chord such as the cadential six-four whose bass becomes a prominent acoustic phenomenon demanding its own overtones. This phenomenon is not present in the typical unaccented six-four chords passing, pedal, or arpeggiated all of which are weak representatives of an original consonant triad. Even when a major or minor arpeggiated six-four chord falls on an accented beat, it is still a consonant triad. B. If there is a general agreement that the perfect fourth is a consonance in a certain vertical arrangement, and if there is no general agreement on its dissonant qualities even when it includes the bass note a conclusion may be drawn that the fourth itself is not a reliable factor in the discussion of the functionality of the six-four chords. Only when it is viewed in correlation with such factors as functional ambivalence and metric accent does it become a facet in this regard. 21 Except the seventh harmonic which produces a dissonant interval. 79

80 Genuine Dominant with Suspensions versus Cadential Six-Four In the light of Walter Piston s deliberations about the dominant function of the cadential six-four, the example below illustrates the steps of deriving that chord from a dominant triad first the dominant appears with a single suspension, and then it occurs with a double suspension. In both cases, the suspended tones are resolved: Example 4: Steps in the Supposed Derivation of the Cadential Six-Four. Similar examples are displayed in many theory books as proof of the unquestionable dominant function of the cadential six-four. I agree that Example 4b visually demonstrates how a dominant function may be initiated through a double suspension and then carried out as a triad. Historically, the cadential six-four sonority may have been derived through linear motion as many other chords (if not all) have been. But once a chord has been evaluated aesthetically, composers begin to use it deliberately in a variety of manners, some of which exceed the limitations of originally implied procedures. Leonard Meyer calls this process a shift from the constraints of linear counterpoint to those of vertical harmony (Meyer 2000, ). He also observes that once harmony became a fully syntactic parameter, explicit discord, upon which contrapuntal action depends, could be dispensed with (ibid.). In the case of the cadential six-four, the levels of dispensing with the idea of an explicit discord include but are not limited to: unusual resolutions of the suspensions by a leap or by a step in the direction opposite to the expected one; embellishments of the discord itself with suspensions and other non-chord tones; resolution of dissonant chords into the discord ; and free arpeggiation of the discord. An example of the first situation is shown below. It displays some of the melodic contours that are encountered above the complex Cad.6/4 V (V7). The odd resolutions of the suspensions or appoggiaturas are shown with numbers that were left vertically unarranged to reflect more clearly the unusual motion. Notice also the motion of the fifth scale degree in the upper voices: Example 5 shows how different the treatment of the suspensions or appoggiaturas in the cadential six-four may be from the manner true suspensions and appoggiaturas resolve in counterpoint. These illustrations are enhanced by the striking case in the Mozart excerpt (Example 1), where the supposed dissonant fourth performs an upward leap at a fourth to become a dominant seventh. The embellishment of the 80

81 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR cadential six-four with non-chord tones and the resolution of dissonant chords into it will be reviewed in separate sections later. Example 5: Unusual Resolutions of the Suspensions in the Dominant Chord. Let us return to Example 4 that suggests how the six-four has been derived. The difference in the aural effects of 4a and 4b cannot be ignored: while on the downbeat of the second measure of 4a a dominant chord sounds with a suspended tone which makes the sonority dissonant and intense, on the downbeat of the second measure of 4b an ambiguous structure sounds that is lacking the same degree of intensity the initiated dominant function in the bass is somewhat blurred by the structural equality of the vertical sonority with the tonic triad. While the label V6/4 seems to justify the physical operation, the aural expectation of a dissonant and an indisputable dominant chord at that very moment is not being met. The difference between the aural impacts of the two structures discussed in Example 4 suggests the idea of testing their genuine dominant qualities with a simple operation. We will use the same progressions, this time leaving the dominant chords on their own, that is, without resolving the suspended tones prior to their resolution into the tonic 22 : Example 6: Test for the Presence of Genuine Dominant Qualities in V5/4 and V6/4. As a result of this manipulation, the difference between Example 6a and Example 6b becomes striking: while the second chord in 6a maintains its dominant function and produces a convincing authentic resolution, its counterpart in 6b, stripped of a 22 The parallel fifths between tenor and soprano in Example 6a are allowed for the sake of keeping the tone E in the soprano, which visualizes better the operation in the upper voices. 81

82 real dominant support, fails to produce an authentic resolution and, combined with the following tonic triad, sounds like an arpeggiated tonic six-four on a downbeat. This is why no piece of music would ever end with such a fake cadence as Cad.6/4 I. Notice also the metamorphosis of the perfect fourth in Example 6b; as a result of the direct interaction between I6/4 and I5/3, it does not even operate as a simulated dissonance. The above experiment prompted a musician to exclaim that one could not expect from a dismembered sonority [the cadential six-four placed directly before a root position tonic] to behave like a dominant. I replied that a true dominant with suspensions never sounds like a dismembered sonority, even if it resolves directly into the tonic. Had the cadential six-four been a true dominant, it would have represented a self-sufficient chord which did not have to be followed by another dominant for its validation. The following illustration will put a final touch in this rationale. Compare the effect of a genuine dominant with a double suspension to the effect of a fake dominant with a double suspension (cadential six-four): Example 7: Genuine Dominant with Suspensions versus Cadential Six-Four The dominant seventh chord with a double suspension in Example 7a may be explained as an incomplete V13 sus chord. It does a convincing job in its direct connection to the tonic, eliminating the necessity of handling the suspensions prior to the resolution. In contrast, its counterpart in Example 7b fails to convince anyone in its dominant qualities it needs a real dominant as a moderator between itself and the root position tonic. What inference could be derived from the examples we have just reviewed? I think it would be reasonable to declare that the cadential six-four is not a genuine dominant with suspensions, because it needs further functional clarification, while a true dominant with suspensions is always a self-contained function which does not need further clarification. Generally speaking, a major or minor six-four chord is heard as cadential when: a) it occurs on a metrically stronger position than the following chord; b) it is preceded by a subdominant, tonic, or submediant, and c) it is followed by the dominant. 23 But even 23 Occasional exceptions of this principle occur; sometimes the cadential six-four is followed by VI, first inversion tonic, or some other chord, and the dominant is delayed or avoided. The impression may still be one of a cadential chord, because of the way it has been introduced as a metrically stressed triad. In some of those cases the perfect fourth is not treated as a dissonance, and the chord may receive another interpretation such as an accented tonic in second inversion (especially when followed by a tonic in first inversion). 82

83 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR when those conditions have been fulfilled, the cadential six-four still fails to qualify as a fully-fledged dominant. The examples and comments that follow will provide additional evidence in this regard. Resolution of Non-Chord Tones into the Cadential Six-Four In Example 8 the tone D is suspended above the cadential six-four chord. It resolves downward to C which, in its turn, becomes a suspension over the dominant harmony and resolves downward to B: Example 8: Suspension and Resolution within the Cadential Six-Four (9-8 towards tonic s root). This illustration raises the question: What is the function of the chord in the second bar? Those who are inclined to answer The function is dominant will have to explain the following discrepancies: 1. Why does the tone D a member of the dominant sound like a dissonant non- -chord tone above what is deemed to be a dominant function? 2. Why does the tone C a non-chord tone to the dominant sound like a chord tone above what is deemed to be a dominant? How could a chord tone sound like a dissonant suspension, and a non-chord tone sound like a consonant resolution? On the other hand, if the answer is The chord in question is bi-functional, everything falls in place; the suspended tone collides with the tonic structure of the cadential six-four and resolves into it as if it resolves into a tonic triad. The dominant function, initiated by the bass tone, does not undermine the aural effect of suspension and resolution within the tonic component. Eventually, the entire cadential six-four, as a bi-functional chord, gives way to the dominant function claimed by the bass note. Example 9 is similar to the progression we have just reviewed. The tone F, suspended above the cadential six-four, resolves downward into E. Subsequently, E is treated as another suspension as it moves downward to D. Again, the suspended tone F, being a member of a dominant seventh chord, sounds like a foreign element to the chord that is deemed to be a dominant itself; and the tone E, a non-chord tone to the dominant, sounds like a resolution over that same dominant function: 83

84 Example 9: Suspension and Resolution within the Cadential Six-Four (4-3 towards tonic s root). In the following excerpt from a Mozart sonata, the cadential six-four is embellished chromatically with passing tones in m. 154 and with a suspension in m The suspension, which would be oddly labelled 5-4 in reference to the bass note, is actually a disguised 9-8 suspension as referred to the root of the tonic, and this is how it would be perceived. The didactic Example 8 given above is drawn from cases like this one: Example 10: Wolfgang A. Mozart, Piano Sonata in C minor, K. 457 (I), measures In the next excerpt Mozart introduces suspensions and passing tones to the cadential six-four and to the dominant, respectively: Example 11: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in B-flat, K. 281 (I), measures 7 8. Notice how the composer embellishes identically the tonic structure of the cadential six-four and the following dominant chord. This is illustrated in Example 12. The 84

85 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR dominant function, initiated by the bass of the cadential chord does not undermine the aural effect of tonic embellishment in the layer above: Example 12: Schematic Interpretation of Beat 2 from the Mozart Excerpt in Example 11. A similar pattern is shown in Example 13, where the fifth, the third and the root of the tonic above the dominant bass are displaced by non-chord tones: Example 13: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in A minor, K. 310 (I), measures These non-chord tones, accented by nature and clashing with the accompaniment, have the potential meaning of appoggiaturas as shown bellow. In a slower tempo and larger note values their effect would be more palpable: Example 14: Schematic Interpretation of the 6/4 Portion from the Mozart Excerpt in Example

86 In Example 15 Beethoven embellishes the cadential six-four chord with accented neighboring tones: Example 15: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in A, Op. 2 No. 2 (IV), measures 6 8. Notice also that I have labeled the first chord in Example 15 as an altered subdominant built on the second scale degree, instead of as a secondary dominant (V6/5 of V). The reason for that is the fact that the resolution into the cadential six-four does not represent a tonicization of V but occurs in a sonority that has a tonic structure. On the other hand, this resolution is not necessarily deceptive. I shall refer to this problem again later. Let us review Example 16 which is particularly interesting. Ironically, here the third and the fifth of the dominant triad embellish the cadential six-four on weak beats, in the form of anticipations: Example 16: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in E-flat, Op. 7 (I), measures The next example displays a series of suspensions (beginning with a triple suspension over the II chord) introduced to each chord on the downbeat of each measure and resolved accordingly. An interesting feature is the direct comparison between an embellished cadential six-four and an embellished dominant chord; a double suspension (marked with an x ) is emphasized over the cadential six-four and resolved into the tonic fifth and third degrees, respectively; then a suspension is introduced over the dominant structure and is resolved into the dominant fifth degree. The suspensions over the cadential six-four are nothing more than disguised 6-5 and 4-3 as referred to the tonic note: 86

87 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR Example 17: Frederic Chopin, Grande Valse Brilliante, Op. 18, measures Another excerpt from the same waltz illustrates a similar embellishment of the cadential six-four (Example 18). Here the tones suspended above it are both members of V7 as is the appoggiatura on beat two; they sound foreign to the tonic structure of the six-four into which they resolve. The arrival of V7, on the other hand, falls in conflict with the tones of the previous resolution and makes them sound like another double suspension above the dominant structure. Notice that the dominant chord tones are present in the left hand below the suspension. This is another direct comparison between an embellished cadential six-four and an embellished dominant: Example 18: Frederic Chopin, Grande Valse Brilliante, Op. 18, measures Resolution of Altered Chords into the Cadential Six-Four The examples presented until this moment revealed how non-chord tones treated the cadential six-four as a tonic. The various resolutions of entire altered chords into the cadential six-four are similar in effect. Such resolutions also allow one to draw a fine nuance between the function of an altered subdominant and that of a secondary dominant a topic that is broad enough to generate another research paper. Here I will limit the discussion to several illustrations accompanied with explanations. If we look back at Example 15, we will realize that the F#7 chord does not function as a secondary dominant because no secondary triad is tonicized. On the other hand, it does not resolve deceptively, for its resolution does not bring surprise. If it did, we might label 87

88 that function as a V7 of V which resolved deceptively into the cadential six-four. A customary explanation of this situation in most theory books would read: This is a secondary dominant whose resolution into V is delayed by the appearance of the cadential six-four chord. This explanation reveals the fact that the manner in which the altered chord resolves or behaves has not been taken into account. When this chord resolves into I, I6, and I6/4 (cadential or passing) it reveals one type of behavior, and when it resolves directly into V it reveals another type of behavior. The behavior of the chord is its harmonic function. The resolutions of the so-called common tone diminished seventh chord (which is either a II7 altered in major or a IV7 altered in minor), displayed below, sound identical, although the chord in Example 19c may not be a tonic but a cadential six-four instead. The bass of the cadential chord has a dominant function, but this does not change the behavior of the diminished chord it still treats the six-four as a tonic structure and resolves into it accordingly: Example 19: Resolutions of an Altered S II7 into the Tonic and the Cadential Six-Four. To interpret the diminished seventh chord in 19c as a misspelled VII7 of V would be relatively inaccurate on account of the tendency of D# to resolve upward and the tendency of C to remain in place as a link to the following chord. These tendencies disclose the fact that D# is the actual root of the chord. On the other hand, in the resolution of VII7/V into V the tendencies change; the former root (D#) converts into a seventh (Eb) which resolves in an opposite direction; and the former seventh (C) becomes a fifth which also resolves downward. The differences between those two resolutions are illustrated below: Example 20: Difference between the Resolutions of SII alt. and DVII of D. The following music excerpt from a Beethoven sonata (Example 21) exemplifies the resolution presented in Example 20a. The departure from the diatonic II6/5 shows the origin of the altered chord that follows and resolves into the cadential six-four. Regardless of the original spelling, the tone B-flat (A#) is the actual root of the diminished seventh 88

89 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR chord as it resolves upward to B. However, in G minor, the same chord would be spelled exactly as Beethoven did, and it will represent an altered IV7 chord. An interesting observation is the lack of tendency to resolve on the part of the seventh chord degree when the supertonic resolves into the cadential six-four or the tonic. This tone is the tonic note itself, and it simply remains in place as a link between the two chords. However, the dissonant interval between the seventh degree and the root (an augmented second between tenor and soprano, spelled here as a minor third) does resolve into a major third. Example 21: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in G, Op. 14 No. 2 (II), measures 5 8. Notice also the manner in which the cadential six-four connects the dominant in example 21; neither does it sound like a dominant with suspensions, nor do the suspensions resolve in the manner they are expected. Another violation is the appearance of the six-four on a beat which, although relatively accented, is weaker than the downbeat on which the dominant follows. These deviations, viewed in correlation with the fact that the cadential six-four appears as a chord of a temporary resolution, only reveal how diverse the exploration of that sonority could be. Other typical usages of altered subdominant chords resolving into the cadential sixfour involve the chords containing a diminished third/augmented sixth. Functionally, they are no different from the common tone diminished seventh chord explored above. In Example 22, the II4/3 (b5) chord contains an augmented sixth as it resolves into the cadential six-four. The chord of resolution occupies a whole measure and it hardly sounds like a dominant with a double appoggiatura, given the combination between the compact sonority in the left hand and the accompaniment in the right hand: Example 22: Frederic Chopin, Etude in E, Op. 10 No. 3, measures

90 Concerning the differentiation between altered subdominants and secondary dominants, a few more remarks need to be added. Many analysts would not pay attention to such functional nuances, while others would refuse to make a distinction. The expectation in practice is that different labels and different spellings will continue to circulate interchangeably. However, for those who are particularly attentive to the chord s behavior in different contexts, distinction in functionality may be the preferred manner of analysis. Similarity between the Cadential Six-Four and the Accented Passing Tonic Six-Four A striking feature in the exploration of the I6/4 sonority is observed when it is introduced as a cadential six-four but is connected as a passing tonic six-four. Technically, the first six-four in the progression below is passing, but it is introduced on a downbeat and is preceded by a dramatic altered subdominant; unusual features for a passing tonic six-four which is typically found on weak beat, surrounded by diatonic subdominants: Example 23: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in A, K. 331 (III), measures A similar treatment of I6/4 is found in Beethoven s Für Elise (Example 24). The middle section of the piece (mm ) represents a modulating period from F major to C major. In the second half of the period, what sounds like a cadential six-four in A minor is introduced after the tonic of F major to initiate a modulation from F to a. However, this idea is abandoned and the six-four sonority is treated as a passing common chord in a modulation to C major. Two versions of analysis are provided below to reflect two different possible perceptions: Example 24: Ludwig van Beethoven, Für Elise [Bagatelle No. 25], measures

91 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR The harmonic implications illustrated in Examples 23 and 24 suggest the following conclusion: although there is a marked functional difference between strong and weak six-four chords for instance, the cadential six-four reveals a conflict between tonic and dominant which creates tension, whereas the passing tonic six-four is a substitute for a root position triad and does not create tension the structural equality between them may be explored by shifting the metrical position of a weak sixfour chord and making it sound like a strong, ambivalent six-four chord. This method produces creative ambiguity within a passage and arouses expectations related to a typical cadential six-four arrival an approach to a cadence. One may loosely describe such operations as fusion of a cadential six-four and a passing six-four. Extension and Free Arpeggiation of the Cadential Six-Four The cadential six-four chord may be freely extended for as long as the composer s common sense allows. This technique is typically applied in classical and romantic instrumental concertos at moments where a greater delay in the dominant entrance is sought. Naturally, such extensions, often presented in different forms of arpeggiation, do not sound like dissonant structures with non-chord tones, but create the effect of free re-arrangement of a tonic triad over a dominant bass, as in the following example: Example 25: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Piano Concerto in B-flat, Op. 23 (I), measures

92 Let us observe the following excerpt from Mozart s Piano Concerto in C major. The six-four chord on the downbeat of m. 375 is introduced dramatically as cadential, but its subsequent occurrences in mm will probably be heard as pedal six-fours because of the brief alternations between dominant and tonic above the bass. However, this fusion of cadential and pedal six-four is subordinate to the general impression of the cadential six-four being expanded for seven measures before the appearance of the dominant in m Interestingly, the brief dominant fluctuations in mm are working as embellishments of the extended cadential six-four: Example 26: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Concerto in C, K. 467 (I), measures

93 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR Other interesting features are the embellishment of scale degrees 3, 1, and 6 in the solo piano passage in mm , and the tonic outline in the scale and accompaniment in m When we listen to those passages we do not associate them with appoggiaturas to the dominant, even though they occur above a dominant bass. The empirical evidence presented so far concerns such occurrences of the cadential six-four chord where its structural equality with the tonic triad is compositionally explored, revealing the potential of the cadential sonority to serve as a chord of resolution. This phenomenon naturally defies the conventional view of the cadential six-four as a dominant with non-chord tones. In relation to the various resolutions of non-chord tones and chromatic chords into the cadential six-four, a reductive analysis would place the embellishment of the tonic structure at one level, and the eventual resolution of the entire six-four into the dominant at another, deeper level. At that level, one may even call the cadential six-four a dominant in a process of formation, keeping in mind that this process does not involve a resolution of non-chord tones; rather, it represents a solving of a functional conflict between the tonic and the dominant in favor of the dominant function. In addition, as one has realized, this dominant in a process of formation does not have the character of a genuine dominant with suspensions, for the latter can be connected directly with the tonic and produce an authentic resolution, while the cadential six-four is incapable of such a feast. The notion of two functional levels in a chord is quite different from the notion of a chord with a double suspension typically, non-chord tones and chromatic chords do not resolve into suspensions they resolve into chords, and one such chord may be bi-functional. The bi-functionality does not undermine the aural effect of resolution of those elements into a vertical entity which coincides with the triad built on the first scale degree. For instance, as discussed in Example 10, the oddly looking 5-4 suspension in reference to the bass note of the cadential six-four (which deceives the viewer to think that this is a consonance which resolves into a dissonance!), will be aurally perceived as a dissonant 9-8 suspension to the root of the tonic triad. This perception has nothing to do with a simple embellishment of the embellishment in fact, the tonic component in the cadential six-four is activated through the introduction of a non-chord tone to it, and ironically this foreign tone is a member of the dominant triad! Consequently, to recognize two functional levels in the cadential six-four a tonic and a dominant means to dismiss the absolute equalization of that chord with a dominant function. In Schenkerian analysis the cadential six-four is not recognized as a separate entity with its own character; it is explained as an ornamentation of the dominant chord, even at the surface level. Therefore, the various appearances of that chord as a point of resolution seem to pose a problem before a Schenkerian analyst, even if he or she did not recognize that. As it has already been stressed, typically, non-chord tones and chromatic chords do not resolve into ornamentations they resolve into chords. The analyst may choose to address this problem by: 1) revising the analytical methods so that a new perspective of viewing the cadential six-four as a vertical entity opens; or 2) explaining all these resolutions into the cadential six-four as phenomena that occur 93

94 at a non-existing level, i. e. above the surface, or 3) pretending that such a problem does not exist. As far as the label V6/4 is concerned, it looks rather confusing when attached to a six-four chord which has a tonic structure. This situation is revealed in the following comparison: Example 27: False Coincidence in the labelling of Two Different Structures. If only figured bass numbers were used, both chords in the boxes would be correctly labelled as six-four structures. But when the same Roman numeral is attached to both of them, it confuses the eye and the mind, for it concerns two entirely different sonorities. Well, some musicians would not label the chord in Example 27b on the grounds that it is a part of a tonic prolongation. The matter of functional prolongation may be a subject of heated debates, and the analysis of a music excerpt in this respect will depend on different factors such as: metrical position, tempo, subscription to rigid definitions, and personal bias. Concerning example 27b, one may either leave the label as it is, or place it in parenthesis, or omit it. These actions will depend on one s goal at the moment: to be concrete, or to generalize. Whichever the situation, labelling the passing six-four is not a mistake, and when analysts do that, they may be willing to avoid any possible confusion between that chord and the cadential six-four, whose label shall be different. To the objection that one cannot mechanically separate the V6/4 label from the entire V6/4 5/3 complex, one may reply that, had the cadential six-four been a true dominant with suspensions, such a separation would have been perfectly possible, as in V7sus4 I, or V7sus6/4 I, for example. In the two latter cases, both dominants are separated from the possible additions of V7/3 and V7/5/3, respectively, because true dominants with suspensions may move directly into the tonic (depending on style), without spoiling the effect of an authentic resolution. Summary and Final Remarks The main points of my observations regarding the cadential six-four are summarized in the following list: The perfect fourth, which is regarded either as a consonance or as a dissonance depending on the arrangement of a given sonority, the context, and the aesthetics of a musical epoch fails to serve as a solid argument in favor of an unquestionable dominant function of the cadential six-four chord. 94

95 D. NINOV FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR The tension within the cadential six-four is not caused by a dissonant fourth, but by a functional conflict between tonic and dominant. While a genuine dominant chord with suspensions produces an authentic resolution even if the suspensions are not resolved prior to its motion into the tonic, the cadential six-four chord placed directly before a tonic triad fails to produce an authentic resolution. This means that it is not a genuine dominant with suspensions. Occasionally, non-chord tones and altered chords resolve into the cadential six-four chord. Such resolutions bring forth the structural equality of the six-four with the tonic triad, and they would be impossible if the cadential six-four were a dominant with two non-chord tones. Occasionally, a six-four may be introduced as a cadential chord but connected as a passing chord; this phenomenon reveals its structural equality with the tonic. When the cadential six-four is freely extended or arpeggiated, the aural effect is not one of moving around non-chord tones above a dominant bass, but one of arpeggiating a tonic triad above a dominant bass. The idea of the cadential six-for as an intrinsic combination of tonic and dominant opens the door to the explanation of all possible occurrences of this chord. Its functional duality is caused by two factors: 1) metrical prominence which turns the bass tone into a contrasting element to the upper structure, and 2) special functional surrounding (by S and D or T and D). As for the weak six-four chords (passing and pedal), they do not possess that degree of functional duality because they appear in different conditions related to the absence of metrical prominence, the presence of a smooth bass line and a uniform harmonic encirclement. These factors help us to perceive the weak six-four chords as triads in second inversion. On the other hand, the arpeggiated six-four does not necessarily have a smooth bass line but, being a part of an arpeggiated triad, it leaves no doubt about its qualities of a second inversion chord. I believe this discussion has been persuasive enough to suggest the following conclusion: Granting the cadential six-four a full license of being a dominant is no less erroneous than declaring it as a tonic in second inversion. The cadential six-four is a bi-functional chord in which a unique conflict between the two most polar harmonic functions tonic and dominant is manifest. Bibliography Arabov, Plamen. Хармония с аранжиране за хор [Harmony with Arrangements for Choir]. Sofia: Muzika, Beach, David. The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Fundamental Line. Journal of Music Theory 34/1 (1990a): More on the Six-Four. Journal of Music Theory 34/2 (1990b): Cadwallader, Allen. More on Scale Degree Three and the Cadential Six-Four. Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992): Grigoriev, Stepan. Теоретический курс гармонии [Theoretical Course of Harmony]. Moscow: Muzika,

96 Hadjiev, Parashkev. Хармония [Harmony], 5 th ed. Sofia: Muzika, Lester, Joel. Reply to David Beach. Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992): Meyer, Leonard. Nature, Nurture, and Convention: The Cadential Six-Four Progression. The Spheres of Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Piston, Walter. Harmony. New York: W. W. Norton, Raitchev, Alexander. Хармония [Harmony], 3 rd ed. Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo, Rameau, Jean-Phiplippe. Treatise on Harmony. Trans. and ed. Philip Gossett. New York: Dover, [1722] Ratner, Leonard G. Harmony: Structure and Style. New York: McGraw-Hill, Riemann, Hugo. The Nature of Harmony. Trans. John C. Fillmore. Philadelphia: Theo. Presser, Schoenberg, Arnold. Theory of Harmony. Trans. Roy Carter. Berkeley: University of California Press, [1922] Wick, Norman L. An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chrods. Theoria 5 (1991): POVZETEK Običajna razlaga kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda kot dominante z dvema poudarjenima neakordičnima tonoma izpušča pomembno značilnosti, ki je poredkoma raziskana: njegovo strukturno enakost s toničnim kvintakordom. Ko je kadenčni kvartsekstakord obogaten z zunajakordnimi toni ali ko se različni alterirani akordi vanj razvežejo, postane ta akord začasna točka razveza in njegova tonična vloga pride bolj do izraza. Razlika med dominanto z zadržki in kadenčnim kvartsekstakordom postane očitna tedaj, ko se vsak od teh akordov razreši neposredno v toniko: prvi ustvari avtentično razrešitev, četudi se zadržki ne razrešijo takoj, drugemu pa takšna razrešitev na uspe in mu mora slediti dominanta. Stavki, kjer je kadenčni akord zastavljen v prostem arpeggiu, ustvarjajo zaznavo premikajočih se toničnih triad prek basa na doinanti in ne gre toliko za prestavitev para zunajakordičnih tonov znotraj akorda na dominanti. V članku je ob tem predstavljen tudi drugačen pristop k razumevanju vloge čiste kvarte. Raziskava želi podkrepiti idejo, da je kadenčni kvartseksakord edinstven dvofunkcijski akord, ki pooseblja boj med toniko in dominanto. Glavne premise mojega eseja izhajajo iz klasičnih pristopov k harmonični funkcionalnosti, ki jo je osnoval J. P. Rameau, razvili pa Hugo Riemann, Rimsky-Korsakov, Arnold Schoenberg, Walter Piston, Benzion Eliezer, Plamen Arabov in drugi, ki so imeli tonalnost za polje dinamične interakcije med tremi glavnimi funkcijami harmonije: toniko, subdominanto, dominanto in njim pripadajočim akordom. 96

97 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... UDK DOI: /mz Andraž Poljanec Dvor 12, 1210 Ljubljana-Šentvid Akustične lastnosti timpanov in njihova povezava z instrumentalno prakso The Acoustic Properties of Timpani and their Connection with the Instrumental Practice Prejeto: 23. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: timpani, pavke, akustika timpanov IZVLEČEK Opravljenih je bilo že mnogo raziskav o akustičnih lastnostih timpanov, neraziskan pa je vpliv različnih tehnik igranja na njihov zven. V svoji raziskavi sem analiziral video in avdio posnetke ter primerjal in ugotavljal vpliv različnih palic, napetosti opne in prijemov oziroma stilov igranja na barvo zvena. Received: 23rd October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: timpani, kettledrums, acoustics of timpani ABSTRACT While there is much knowledge and research on the acoustics of timpani, there is a lack of scientific research on the playing technique. In my research I analyzed visual and audio recordings and discovered the impact on the sound color using different mallets, varying the tension of the membrane and played with different grips and styles. UVOD Timpani so instrumenti arabskega porekla. V Evropi so se kot manjši kotlasti bobni pojavili proti koncu 13. stoletja pod imenom nakers (iz arab. naqqareh), ki se je obdržalo še v 14. stoletju. Sprva so jih uporabljali v vojski, v parih oprtane na konjih. Timpane večje velikosti so v zahodno Evropo prinesli koncem 14. oziroma v začetku 15. stoletja. V Angliji so jih pozneje poimenovali kettle-drums (kotlasti bobni). 1 Po začetni uporabi izključno na prostem, kjer so timpanisti v kombinaciji s trobentami improvizirali, značilna pa je bila tudi izrazita gestikulacija, so timpani v 17. stoletju prišli v dvora- 1 Prim.: Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration (New York: Dover Publications, 1982),

98 ne raznih evropskih dvorcev skupaj s trobentami, rogovi in oboami. 2 Tekom stoletij je po zaslugi skladateljev njihova vloga v orkestru postajala vse večja. Izraz timpan izhaja iz latinske besede tympanum oziroma iz grške tympanon, kar pomeni boben. Ime timpani se večinoma uporablja v množini, ker v praksi igramo na več bobnov, ki jih v francoščini imenujejo timbales, v angleščini kettle-drums ali timpani, v nemščini pauken, v češčini kotly in v italijanščini timpani. Slovenščina je najprej prevzela nemško ime in ga poslovenila v pavke, kar je bilo sprva splošno razširjeno. Postopno se je uveljavila različica timpani, ki jo uporabljamo vse pogosteje, lahko pa rečemo, da sta izraza timpani in pavke pri nas enakovredna. Ime kotli, ki bi bilo podobno kot v češčini jezikovno najbolj primerno, pa se v slovenščini uporablja zelo redko. Glavni sestavni deli timpanov so masivno podnožje, na katero je pritrjen običajno bakren kotel resonator, ter opna, ki je napeta čez kotlov rob. Opna je najprej namotana okrog nekoč lesenega, danes kovinskega obroča, malce večji železni obroč pa jo osredišči in s pomočjo dolgih jeklenih vijakov napenja ob rob kotla. Napetost in s tem višino tona so v preteklosti spreminjali ročno z več krajšimi vijaki, razporejenimi po obodu železnega obroča, ali z vrtenjem kotla na navpični osi. Danes ima večina timpanov (razen znamenitih dunajskih, kjer s pomočjo T-ročaja dvigamo ali spuščamo cel kotel, ki pritiska na opno) v podnožje vgrajen pedal, s katerim prek omenjenih dolgih vijakov spreminjamo napetost membrane. S pedalom je povezan tudi kazalec, ki timpanistu omogoča vizualno nastavitev posameznih tonov. Sodobni komplet petih timpanov ima skupni obseg dobrih dveh oktav. Danes so timpani najpomembnejša tolkala v orkestru predvsem zaradi zmožnosti proizvajanja zvena točno določene višine, s čimer sodelujejo v harmoniji kompozicij kot basovski instrument s poudarjeno ritmično vlogo. Poleg tega imajo timpani največji razpon v dinamiki oziroma so dinamično najbolj ekstremen instrument. Imajo torej velik vpliv na zvočno sliko celotnega orkestra. Akustične lastnosti timpanov v povezavi z instrumentalno prakso Na področju akustike timpanov so doslej opravili že vrsto raziskav, ki pojasnjujejo značilnosti nihanja membrane. Frekvence načinov nihanja idealne membrane je John W. S. Rayleigh izračunal že v 19. stoletju (The Theory of Sound, 1894). 3 Velik napredek v razumevanju akustike timpanov je v zadnji četrtini 20. stoletja naredil Thomas D. Rossing, ki je raziskoval harmonski spekter pavk. Najsodobnejše delo s področja akustike timpanov pa je Timpani Tone (Steven L. Schweizer, 2010), 4 v kateri najdemo tudi nekaj spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov glede na trdoto palice in napetost opne. Raziskovanje akustičnih vidikov različnih tehnik oziroma stilov igranja in prijemov palice pa je bilo doslej zapostavljeno, čeprav je jasno, da zven timpanov ni odvisen le od vrste in kvalitete instrumenta, ampak tudi od načina igranja timpanista. 2 Prim.: John H. Beck, Encyclopedia of percussion (New York, London: Garland publ., 1995), John W. S. Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound, vol. 1, 2. izd. (New York: Dover Publications, 1945, 1. izd. 1894), Steven L. Schweizer, Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010). 98

99 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Nihanje okrogle, idealne, proste membrane Pri nihanju okrogle, idealne in proste membrane, tj. takšne s povsod enako debelino in enako napetostjo ter brez resonatorja kotla, se pojavita dve vrsti vozliščnic: črtaste oziroma prečne čez središče opne in pa krožne. Na vozliščnicah je odmik opne iz ravnovesne lege ničen oziroma minimalen podobno kot pri vozlih na struni. Posledica nihanja vzbujene opne je torej frekvenčni spekter, sestavljen iz množice načinov nihanja oziroma vzorcev. 5 Slika 1: Načini nihanja okrogle membrane 6 (prir. A. Poljanec). Slika 1 prikazuje 25 načinov oziroma vzorcev nihanja okrogle membrane; pod posameznim vzorcem je navedeno število vozliščnih krožnic (n) in vozliščnih premerov (p). Kot je razvidno, predstavlja že obod oziroma obroč okrogle membrane prvo vozliščno krožnico membrana pri prvem načinu (0,1) v celoti niha gor in dol nad ravnovesno lego, v kateri je opna v mirujočem stanju. Za izračun frekvenc posameznih načinov nihanja uporabimo enačbo 1 T F= J 2πr ρ pn Enačba nam razkrije nekaj zakonitosti okrogle membrane: frekvenca je obratno sorazmerna s polmerom (r) če polmer podvojimo, se frekvenca razpolovi, torej 5 Prim.: Murray Campbell in Clive Greated, The Musician s Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schrimer Books, 1987), Bruno Ravnikar, Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike (Ljubljana: DZS, 1999),

100 se intonacija zniža za eno oktavo; poleg tega je frekvenca sorazmerna s korenom napetosti opne (T) če želimo intonacijo zvišati za oktavo, moramo štirikrat povečati napetost. 7 Izračunane frekvence načinov nihanja za idealno prosto membrano, ki bi teoretično nihala v brezzračnem prostoru, pokažejo zelo neharmonsko alikvotno vrsto, kar pomeni, da takšna membrana ne intonira. 8 Nihanje membrane na kotlu resonatorju V realnosti je opna timpana napeta čez rob kotla. Udarec s palico vzbudi njeno nihanje, ki se prenese na volumen zraka v kotlu, zvočno valovanje pa se prenaša po okoliškem zraku. Masa zraka, ki pritiska na opno, ne samo da postopno zmanjšuje amplitudo nihanja (dušeno nihanje), ampak tudi zniža frekvence posameznih načinov nihanja. Očitno je, da membrana niha nekoliko počasneje kot v brezzračnem prostoru, če med nihanjem odriva zrak navzgor in navzdol. 9 Vpliv na nižje alikvotne frekvence je zaradi večjih amplitud večji, na višje pa manjši. 10 Poleg tega kotel kot resonator upočasni izzvenevanje posameznih načinov nihanja in poudari osnovno frekvenco nihanja. 11 Rezultat vseh naštetih dejavnikov je, da membrana na kotlu intonira, izkaže pa se, da k tonalnosti prispevajo prečni načini nihanja. 12 Točka udarca na opni Točka udarca določa, kateri načini nihanja se vzbudijo. Osnovno pravilo je, da udarec v vozel ali na vozliščnico ne vzbudi pripadajočega načina nihanja. 13 Tako npr. udarec v sredino opne vzbudi samo krožne načine nihanja, ker se v središču križajo vse vozliščnice prečnih načinov, ki so v tem primeru nevzbujeni. Nasprotno pa bo udarec povsem pri obroču teoretično vzbudil večino možnih frekvenc. Udarec v sredino slišimo kot zamolkel zven vzbujeni so samo krožni načini. Udarec blizu obroča pa se sliši kot daljši ton (vzbujeni so tudi prečni načini nihanja). Pri timpanih je običajna točka udarca približno na eni četrtini razdalje od oboda proti sredini. Udarec v to točko usmeri večino energije v prečne načine nihanja, ki prispevajo k tonalnosti instrumenta. Udarec v center pa, kot rečeno, prečne načine nihanja zaduši Prim.: Campbell in Greated, The Musician s Guide to Acoustics, Prav tam. 9 Prav tam, str Prim.: Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics, 2. izd. (Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1991), Steven L. Schweizer, Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), Prim.: Hall, Musical Acoustics, Prav tam, str Andreas Wagner,»Analysis of Drumbeats Interaction between Drummer, Drumstick and Instrument«(PhD diss., Stockholm: Kraljevi inštitut za tehnologijo, 2006),

101 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Raziskava nekaterih tehnik igranja na timpane Namen raziskave je ugotoviti vpliv različnih prijemov palice in stilov igranja na barvo zvena, podobno kot je to mogoče doseči z uporabo različnih palic ali napetosti opne za isti ton. V raziskavi sem primerjal: pet različnih palic (slika 3, tabela 2), dve napetosti opne (tona c in f), dve artikulaciji (legato in staccato), dva različna stila oziroma prijema (francoski in ameriški), tremolo s tremi različnimi pari palic. Raziskava tehnik igranja je bila del magistrskega študija akustičnih lastnosti pavk in njihove povezave z instrumentalno prakso na muzikološkem oddelku Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani pod mentorstvom izr. prof. dr. Bruna Ravnikarja. Samo raziskavo pa sem opravil na Univerzi za glasbo in upodabljajočo umetnost na Dunaju pod vodstvom prof. dr. Matthiasa A. Bertscha, ki se sicer ukvarja z interdisciplinarnimi raziskavami na področjih akustike, psihoakustike, psihologije, fiziologije, organologije in kognitivnih znanosti. Za analizo stika glave palice in membrane ob udarcu ter hitrosti palice sva uporabila visokohitrostno kamero Vision Phantom V12.1, ki omogoča počasno predvajanje hitrega posnetka in s tem natančno vizualno analizo. Kamero je posodil akustični oddelek dunajske Univerze za glasbo in upodabljajočo umetnost. Visokohitrostni posnetki so bili narejeni z več tisoč slikami na sekundo. Tabela 1 prikazuje razmerje med normalno filmsko hitrostjo in hitrim posnetkom. Dogajanje snemamo z npr slikami na sekundo, nato pa predvajamo posnetek z normalno hitrostjo, pri čemer je gibanje palice izrazito počasno. Za analizo video posnetkov sem uporabil program Quick Time Player. normalna hitrost 30 slik/s 1 s = 1 s hitri posnetek 2000 slik/s 1 s = 66,67 s = 1 min 6,67 s hitri posnetek 4000 slik/s 1 s = 133,34 s = 2 min 13,34 s Tabela 1: Razmerje med normalno hitrostjo snemanja in hitrim posnetkom. Slika 2: Visokohitrostna kamera Phantom V12.1 s tehničnimi podatki: do 6242 slik/ sekundo pri polni resoluciji (1200 x 800), hitrost zaslonke 1 μs. 101

102 Za zvočne posnetke posameznih udarcev sva uporabila mikrofon AKG C577WR ( Hz), ki je bil nameščen 15 cm nad opno. Za analizo zvočnih posnetkov sem uporabil program Audacity, ki omogoča prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov. Spektrogramske črte, ki prikazujejo spekter zvoka, se razlikujejo po barvi in dolžini glede na jakost in trajanje posamezne frekvence. Najmočneje izražene frekvence so obarvane belo, šibkejše pa rdeče, vijolično in modro. Dolžina črte pove, koliko časa izzveneva posamezna frekvenca. Za snemanja sem uporabil 26 inčni Slingerland timpan z membrano Remo Weatherking-Renaissance. Udarci z različnimi palicami Timpanisti uporabljamo številne različno trde palice, s katerimi dosežemo večje ali manjše razlike v artikulaciji, dolžini in barvi zvena. Zelo pomembna je masa palice, ki je odvisna od dolžine, materiala ročaja in glave. Lažje palice prinašajo svetlejši zven z manj očitnimi nižjimi zvočnimi alikvoti in bolj slišnimi zgornjimi, ki so neharmonski, težke lesene palice pa poudarijo osnovni ton in nizke alikvote. 15 Palica za timpane je sestavljena iz ročaja in glave. V raziskavi uporabljene palice imajo ročaje iz bambusa ali lesa in glave iz plute ali lesa. Glava je obložena z različno debelimi ovoji iz filca ali pa je brez prevleke. Slika 3: Palice, uporabljene v raziskavi. Legenda delovnih oznak palic Splošna oznaka palic je XYZ+debelina filca, pri čemer pomeni: X material ročaja palice (B = bambus, L = les) Y material glave palice (P = pluta, L = les) Z material, s katerim je prevlečena glava palice (F = filc, 0 = brez prevleke) debelina filca (zd = zelo debel, srd = srednje debel, t = tanek, zt = zelo tanek) 15 Schweizer, Timpani Tone,

103 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd BPFt LLFzt LL0 material ročaja bambus bambus bambus les les material glave (notranji del) material prevleke glave pluta pluta pluta les les zelo debel filc srednje debel filc tanek filc zelo tanek filc brez prevleke premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 12,86 10,74-14,45 10,62-14,80 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 19,40 18,59 22,70 premer notranjega 24,05 19,97 16,02 17,20 22,70 dela glave [mm] masa palice [g] Tabela 2: Tehnični podatki o palicah, uporabljenih v raziskavi. Timpanisti uporabljamo različne palice glede na: vrsto timpanov, dinamiko, artikulacijo, barvo zvena, ki jo želimo doseči, posebne efekte v sodobni glasbi. Iz izkušenj vemo, da trdota in debelina glave ter masa palic vplivajo na zven timpana. Skupni imenovalec teh dejavnikov je časovna dolžina stika med glavo palice in opno, ki sem jo raziskal v tem poglavju. Prikaz odčitavanja časovne razlike hitrega posnetka med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno ter izračun dejanske časovne razlike za palico LL0 (leseni ročaj, lesena glava brez prevleke, masa je 54 g) na tonu f Slika 4: Začetek stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 15,54 s). 103

104 Slika 5: Konec stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 15,89 s). Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 2000 slik/sekundo) med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno je 0,35 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0052 s oziroma 5,2 ms. Čas stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno na tonu f je 5,2 ms. Po enakem postopku sem izračunal čase stika med glavo in opno za ostale palice. delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd BPFt LLFzt LL0 material ročaja bambus bambus bambus les les material glave (notranji del) pluta pluta pluta les les material prevleke glave zelo debel filc srednje debel filc 104 tanek filc zelo tanek filc brez prevleke premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 12,86 10,74-14,45 10,62-14,80 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 19,40 18,59 22,70 masa palice [g] čas stika med glavo palice in opno 6,8 ms 3,9 ms 3,3 ms 5,2 ms 5,2 ms Tabela 3: Tehnični podatki o palicah ter razultati časov stika med glavami palic in opno. Pri palicah iz bambusa je časovna dolžina stika med glavo palice in opno premo sorazmerna z debelino filcaste prevleke glave, kar je pričakovano in povsem logično. Na prvi pogled pa sta presenetljiva podatka o časih stika pri lesenih palicah z zelo tankim slojem filca (LLFzt) in brez prevleke (LL0), saj bi pričakovali, da se trša glava hitreje odbije od opne kot mehkejša, pa tudi podatki o trajanju stika pri bambusovih palicah (BPFzd, BPFsrd in BPFt) kažejo na to. Vzrok za daljši čas pri lesenih palicah je njihova masa, ki je dvakrat večja kot pri bambusovih, in vpliva na občutno podaljšanje stika. Če primerjamo lesene palice z zelo tankim slojem filca in brez prevleke, je čas stika kljub

105 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... večji trdoti lesenih palic brez prevleke enak, kar je očitno prav tako posledica razlike v masi, čeprav le za nekaj gramov. Če pomislimo na instrumentalno prakso, kjer si npr. želimo odigrati nek odsek timpanskega parta čim bolj staccato, torej se trudimo za čim krajši stik med glavo palice in opno, bomo glede na to ugotovitev artikulacijo staccato lažje in učinkoviteje dosegli z bolj lahkimi palicami. Če pa želi timpanist skrajšati čas stika med glavo težke palice in opno, mora bolj aktivirati zapestje za čim hitrejši odboj palice ali pa poskrbeti za večjo hitrost palice, pri čemer mora paziti, da obdrži isto dinamiko. Prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov za udarca z mehko in zelo trdo palico Udarec s palico BPFzd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena z zelo debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki in staccato artikulaciji na tonu f z osnovno frekvenco 175 Hz Slika 6: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka udarca z mehko palico (BPFzd). Udarec s palico LL0 (leseni ročaj, lesena glava brez prevleke, masa je 54 g) v forte dinamiki in staccato artikulaciji na tonu f z osnovno frekvenco 175 Hz Slika 7: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka udarca z zelo trdo palico (LL0). 105

106 Frekvenčni spekter pri udarcu z mehkimi in lahkimi palicami z debelo glavo seže do 2000 Hz, pri udarcu z zelo trdimi lesenimi palicami brez prevleke pa do Hz. Trde in težke palice zato zvenijo ostro v primerjavi z lažjimi in mehkejšimi. Pri palicah torej vplivajo na zven trije dejavniki: trdota in debelina glave ter masa palice. Napetost opne Postopek analize visokohitrostnih video posnetkov oziroma odčitavanje časovne razlike med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno ter izračun dejanske časovne razlike je bil enak kot pri primerjavi udarcev z različnimi palicami. višina tona oz. napetost opne za: ton f (175 Hz) ton c (131 Hz) čas stika 4,3 ms 6,7 ms Tabela 4: Čas stika med glavo palice in opno glede na njeno napetost oz. višino tona. Čas stika je seveda krajši pri večji napetosti oziroma višjem tonu, kar timpanisti izkoriščamo za igranje v staccato artikulaciji, medtem ko tremolo na splošno raje odigramo na manj napeti opni. Iz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov izhajajo podobni zaključki. Pri tonu f z višjo napetostjo opne namreč posamezne frekvence izzvenijo 1 do 2 sekundi prej kot pri tonu»c«. Podobna razlika v napetosti opne je, če zaigramo ton»c«na 29 oziroma na 26 inčnem timpanu. Zato bomo ton»c«s staccato artikulacijo raje kot na timpanu z velikostjo 26 inčev zaigrali na 29 inčnem timpanu, kjer je napetost opne za isti ton višja. Poleg tega je pri večji napetosti membrane osnovni ton bolj poudarjen, prisotnih je manj neharmonskih frekvenc, torej je intonacija čistejša. Legato in staccato artikulacija Razliko med legato in staccato artikulacijo najlaže dosežemo z menjavo palic, če pa to ni mogoče, skušamo pri staccato artikulaciji s posebnim prijemom istega para palic skrajšati čas stika med opno in palico. Na timpanih zaigramo legato tako, da primemo palico čim bolj narahlo samo s palcem in kazalcem. Tako pride do daljšega stika med glavo palice in opno, rezultat pa je poln legato zven. Če želimo doseči ostrejši staccato zven, primemo palico s palcem, kazalcem in sredincem, s pomočjo zapestja pa povečamo hitrost odboja palice, s čimer dosežemo krajši stik med glavo palice in opno ter posledično bolj artikuliran zven Prav tam,

107 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Slika 8: Legato prijem. Slika 9: Staccato prijem. Prikaz izračunavanja povprečne hitrosti palice pri legato udarcu s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c Slika 10: Palica med gibanjem navzdol v poševni legi (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 43,20 s). 107

108 Slika 11: Glava palice se dotakne opne začetek stika (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 51,19 s). Hitrost palice Andreas Wagner je v raziskavi udarcev na malem bobnu ugotovil, da hitrost palice vpliva na čas stika glave z opno, pri čemer je pri večji hitrosti čas stika krajši, ob tem pa se poveča dinamika igranja (npr. s forte na fortissimo). 17 V svoji raziskavi na timpanih pa primerjam hitrosti različnih udarcev pri isti dinamiki (forte). Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila zaradi natančnejšega odčitavanja 4000 slik/sekundo) med poševno lego in začetkom stika z opno je 7,99 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 133,34 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0599 s oziroma 59,9 ms. Razdalja (r) od prijemališča do sredine glave palice je 0,282 m, kot α pa je 62. Po naslednji enačbi izračunam lok, ki ga opiše palica od poševne lege do stika z opno: π 3,14 l= r 180 α = 0,282 m = 0,3050 m S tema dvema podatkoma lahko izračunam povprečno hitrost palice: l 0,3050 m v = t = 0,0599 s = 5,09 Povprečna hitrost srednje mehkih palic (BPFsrd) med poševno lego in začetkom stika z opno pri legato udarcu s francoskim prijemom v dinamiki forte je 5,09 m/s. m s Čas stika med glavo palice in opno Prejšnja slika 11 prikazuje začetek stika med glavo palice in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 51,19 s). 17 Prim.: Wagner,»Analysis of Drumbeats«,

109 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Slika 12: Konec stika med glavo palice in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 52,06 s). Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 4000 slik/sekundo) med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno je 0,87 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 133,34 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0065 s oziroma 6,5 ms. Čas stika med glavo palice BPFsrd in opno pri legato udarcu na tonu c je 6,5 ms. Po enakem postopku sem izračunal povprečno hitrost palice in čas stika med glavo palice in opno za staccato udarec. Slika 13: Staccato udarec s palico BPFsrd v poševni legi med gibanjem navzdol (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c. 109

110 Slika 14: Glava palice se dotakne opne začetek stika pri staccato udarcu. vrsta udarca povprečna hitrost palice [m/s] legato 5,09 6,5 staccato 5,14 5,8 čas stika med glavo palice in opno [ms] Tabela 5: Razlika med legato in staccato artikulacijo. Na prvi pogled je presenetljivo, da je povprečna hitrost palice pri staccato udarcu le za 0,05 m/s višja v primerjavi z legatom. Vzrok za to je za 8 večji kot, ki ga opiše palica pri legato udarcu zaradi drugačnega stika glave palice z opno. Pri analizi video posnetkov udarcev za legato in staccato artikulacijo sem namreč pri obeh prijemih za začetek obravnave posnetka vzel enako višino glave palice oziroma enako lego palice v poševnem položaju. Ob dotiku z opno pa sta legi palice pri legato oziroma staccato udarcu nekoliko različni, zato se razlikujeta tudi kota, ki ju palica opiše med poševno lego in stikom z opno. Vzrok za različni legi palic ob stiku z opno je v tem, da pri legato udarcu stik glave palice z opno podaljšamo tudi z nekoliko bolj poševnim položajem glave glede na opno, kar je razvidno, če primerjamo sliki 11 in 14. Če bi preračunali povprečno hitrost na enak kot, bi bila razlika v povprečni hitrosti palice 14 krat večja. Legato in staccato artikulacija spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov Legato udarec s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c z osnovno frekvenco 131 Hz 110

111 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Slika 15: Udarec legato. Staccato udarec s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c z osnovno frekvenco 131 Hz Slika 16: Udarec staccato. Kot je razvidno s spektrogramov, seže sklenjen frekvenčni spekter pri legato udarcu malo čez 2000 Hz, pri staccato udarcu pa čez 4000 Hz, kar daje zvenu ostrejšo oziroma svetlejšo barvo. Stili igranja na timpane Pri stilu igranja je na prvem mestu prijem palice, pomembni pa so tudi gibanje roke, doprinos zgornjega dela telesa in stoječa ali sedeča namestitev timpanista. Pri francoskem stilu drži timpanist palico med prvim členkom kazalca in blazinico palca, ki je obrnjen navzgor, ostali prsti pa so zaokroženi okrog ročaja palice, vendar niso v stalnem stiku z njim. Takšen prijem omogoča bliskovit odboj palice in posledično bolj svetel ton. Pri francoskem stilu timpanist običajno igra stoje (tradicija) ali pa v višje sedečem položaju. 18 Pri nemškem stilu držimo palico med prvim členkom palca in višje vzdolž kazalca, ostali prsti pa rahlo objemajo ročaj palice. Zven je zaradi igranja z navzdol obrnjenimi dlanmi nekoliko temnejši Prim.: Schweizer, Timpani Tone, Prav tam. 111

112 Ameriški stil je nekje vmes palico držimo na francoski način in igramo z navzdol obrnjenimi dlanmi. Ostali prsti malce močneje oprijemajo ročaj, močno zapestno gibanje pa zagotavlja hiter odboj palice. 20 Avstrijski prijem je različica nemškega palec je pomaknjen nekoliko višje, tako da je večji del blazinice v stiku z ročajem, kazalec pa je nekoliko bolj zaokrožen okrog ročaja. Pri dunajskem prijemu držimo palico s palcem in sredincem, kazalec pa uravnava smer palice. V raziskavi primerjam francoski stil oziroma prijem z ameriškim, ker ju stalno uporabljam v praksi, to pa je bistvenega pomena za relevantne rezultate raziskave. Kot je razvidno iz primerjave legato in staccato udarca, hitrost palice vpliva na čas stika glave palice z opno in s tem na zven timpana. Zato primerjam hitrosti palice tudi pri francoskem in ameriškem prijemu oziroma stilu. Pri analizi video posnetkov udarcev sem pri obeh prijemih za začetek obravnave posnetka vzel enako lego palice v vodoravnem položaju. Postopek izračuna je bil enak kot pri legato in staccato udarcih. Slika 17: Francoski prijem. Slika 18: Ameriški prijem. 20 Prav tam. 112

113 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... stil igranja oz. prijem francoski 5,39 ameriški 6,34 povprečna hitrost palice [m/s] Povprečna hitrost palice pri legato udarcu z ameriškim prijemom je višja za skoraj 1 m/s, kar je posledica aktivnejšega delovanja zapestja pri ameriškem stilu. Francoski in ameriški prijem palice spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov Udarec s francoskim prijemom in palico BPFsrd (artikulacija legato, ton c) Slika 19: Francoski prijem. Udarec z ameriškim prijemom in palico BPFsrd (artikulacija legato, ton c) Slika 20: Ameriški prijem. Frekvenčni spekter dosega pri francoskem prijemu vrednosti do 3500 Hz, pri ameriškem pa skoraj do 6000 Hz. Pri slednjem je torej prisotnih več višjih frekvenc, posledica pa je ostrejši oziroma svetlejši ton. 113

114 Hitrost palice in frekvenca udarcev pri tremoliranju v odvisnosti od trdote in mase palic Tremolo izvajamo s hitro izmenjavo udarcev obeh rok. Potrebna hitrost oziroma frekvenca udarcev je odvisna od velikosti bobna in napetosti opne (velika napetost zahteva večjo frekvenco in obratno). Na prvi pogled se sicer zdi, da sta hitrost palic pri tremolu in frekvenca udarcev neločljivo povezani oziroma da gre tako rekoč za isto stvar, kar pa seveda ni res. Pri večji masi palic se je treba namreč zavedati, da timpanist vpliva na frekvenco udarcev z nižjo višino tremoliranja. Pri glasnem tremolu je treba upoštevati in po potrebi popravljati morebitno spremembo intonacije, ki se lahko malce zniža zaradi morebitnega raztegovanja opne. Oznaki za tremolo v notah sta»tr«ali pa tri črtice čez rep note. V partih Mozarta, Beethovna in Brahmsa je tremolo vedno označen s»tr«, črtice pa vselej pomenijo določene notne vrednosti: ena črtica čez vrat note pomeni osminke, dve šestnajstinke, tri dvaintridesetinke itd. Izjema je npr. Berlioz, ki uporablja štiri črtice za tremolo. Vsekakor je interpretacija odvisna od konteksta partiture in muzikalne logike. S tremolom na timpanih se skušamo približati dolgim tonom, ki jih izvajajo glasbeniki na drugih instrumentih. Pri tem je treba paziti, da posamezni udarci, ki jih nizamo v gostem zaporedju, niso preveč izraziti, kar najlaže dosežemo z mehkimi palicami. Večkrat pa se zgodi, da v skladbi potrebujemo trše palice za čim bolj jasno izvedbo določenih ritmičnih vzorcev, ki jim lahko takoj sledi tremolo, zato menjava palic ni mogoča. Glede na izkušnje timpanist prilagaja frekvenco tremoliranja glede na trdoto palic, namen raziskave pa je ugotoviti, kakšne so razlike v hitrostih palic. Pri tremolu, posnetem z visokohitrostno kamero v dinamiki forte, torej ugotavljam hitrost palice in frekvenco udarcev glede na trdoto in maso palic: mehke lahke palice (ročaj iz bambusa, plutasta glava je ovita z zelo debelim filcem oznaka BPFzd, masa 26 g), srednje trde lahke palice (ročaj iz bambusa, plutasta glava je ovita s srednje debelim filcem oznaka BPFsrd, masa 26 g), trde težke palice (ročaj iz lesa, lesena glava je ovita z zelo tankim slojem filca oznaka LLFzt, masa 51 g). 114

115 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Prikaz izračuna povprečne hitrosti palice pri tremolu z mehkimi lahkimi palicami Slika 21 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) v zgornji legi (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 41,34 s) in kot, ki ga palica opiše do stika z opno. Slika 22 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 46,03 s). Razdalja od prijemališča do sredine glave palice je r (0,284 m), kot α pa je 63. Po naslednji enačbi izračunam lok, ki ga opiše palica od zgornje do spodnje lege: π 3,14 l= r 180 α = 0,284 m = 0,312 m Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (2000 slik na sekundo) med zgornjo in spodnjo lego leve palice je 4,69 s, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,070 s oziroma 70 ms. S tema dvema podatkoma lahko izračunam povprečno hitrost palice: l 0,312 m v = t = 0,070 s = 4,46 m s Povprečna hitrost mehkih palic (BPFzd) pri tremolu v dinamiki forte je 4,46 m/s. 115

116 Tremolo z mehkimi lahkimi palicami frekvenca udarcev Prejšnja slika 22 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 46,03 s). Slika 23 prikazuje desno palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 52,22 s). Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 2000 slik/sekundo) med dotikoma leve in desne palice je 6,19 s, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0928 s oziroma 92,8 ms. Časovni razmak med dvema udarcema je 0,0928 s, torej je število udarcev v 1 sekundi: 1 0,0928 s = 10,8/s Frekvenca udarcev pri tremolu z mehkimi lahkimi palicami (BPFzd) je 10,8/s. Po enakem postopku sem prišel do povprečne hitrosti palic in frekvence udarcev tudi pri tremolu s srednje trdimi lahkimi in s trdimi težkimi palicami. delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd LLFzt material ročaja bambus bambus les material glave (notranji del) pluta pluta les material prevleke glave zelo debel filc srednje debel filc zelo tanek filc premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 10,74-14,45 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 18,59 masa palice [g] povprečna hitrost palice 4,46 m/s 4,85 m/s 4,38 m/s pri tremolu frekvenca udarcev pri tremolu 10,8/s 11,1/s 12,1/s Tabela 6: Podatki o palicah in njihovih povprečnih hitrostih ter frekvenci udarcev pri tremolu. 116

117 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Povprečna hitrost pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami in z maso 26 g je bila v raziskavi 4,46 m/s, s srednje trdimi z enako maso pa 4,85 m/s, kar potrjuje izkušnjo, da timpanist pri tremoliranju s tršimi palicami poveča hitrost tremola. Pri trdih lesenih palicah z maso 51 g pa je bila hitrost tremola najnižja (4,38 m/s). Vzrok za to je dvakrat večja masa palic, ki otežuje dodatno povečanje hitrosti. Frekvenca udarcev pri mehkih palicah z maso 26 g je bila v raziskavi 10,8/s, pri srednje trdih z enako maso 11,1/s, pri trdih palicah z maso 51 g pa 12,1/s. Očitno je, da pri večji trdoti palic povečujemo frekvenco udarcev pri tremolu. Presenetljiv pa je podatek iz tabele 6 o najnižji hitrosti trde težke palice (LLFzt), pri čemer je frekvenca udarcev vseeno najvišja. Za razjasnitev tega na videz nelogičnega podatka moramo primerjati še amplitude tremola oziroma višine, do katerih sežejo različno težke palice med tremolom. S spodnje slike 24 je razvidno, da trde težke palice (LLFzt) dosežejo le 80% višine, do katere sežejo lahke bambusove palice pri tremolu v dinamiki forte. Timpanist si torej pomaga tako, da zniža amplitudo oz. višino tremola s trdimi palicami, s čimer poveča frekvenco udarcev kljub temu, da je hitrost palice nižja zaradi dvakrat večje mase palic. Slika 24: Primerjava amplitud tremola oz. največjih višin (h) različnih palic (BPFzd, BPFsrd, LLFzt) pri tremolu. Prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov tremola z različnimi palicami Slika 25: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola z mehkimi in lahkimi palicami BPFzd. 117

118 Slika 26: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola s srednje trdimi in lahkimi palicami BPFsrd. Slika 27: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola s trdimi in težkimi palicami LLFzt. Glede na izvajalsko prakso timpanisti najraje izvajamo tremolo z mehkejšimi palicami, da so posamezni udarci čim manj očitni. Glede na primerjavo udarcev z različnimi palicami v prvem delu raziskave, je po udarcu s tršo palico prisotnih več višjih frekvenc, ki hitro izzvenijo, mehke palice pa poudarijo osnovni ton in nizke alikvote, ki izzvenevajo dalj časa. Tudi zgornji trije spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov tremola kažejo podobne slike. Pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami so prisotne predvsem frekvence do 2000 Hz, pri srednje trdih palicah do 3500 Hz, pri trdih težkih palicah pa je frekvenčni spekter precej gost do 5000 Hz, posamezne frekvence pa sežejo do 7000 Hz. Tremolo s trdimi palicami ima zato ostrejši zven, poleg tega je jasnost intonacije manjša kot pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami, kjer pride bolj do izraza osnovni ton in nižje harmonske frekvence. Zaključek V raziskavi sem analiziral video in avdio posnetke in ugotavljal vpliv različnih prijemov oziroma tehnik timpaniranja na barvo zvena. 118

119 A. POLJANEC AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV... Visokohitrostni video posnetki, predvajani z normalno hitrostjo, pokažejo različno dolge čase stika med glavo palice in opno, na kar vplivajo sestava in debelina glave ter masa palic, prav tako napetost opne, ki je obratno sorazmerna s časovno dolžino stika. Hitrost palice je odvisna od stila igranja in vrste prijema pri isti dinamiki (forte). Tako ima staccato udarec večjo povprečno hitrost v primerjavi z legatom po zaslugi bolj tesnega prijema palice in sodelovanja zapestja pri odboju palice od opne, čas stika med glavo palice in opno pa je krajši. Prav tako ima udarec v ameriškem stilu večjo povprečno hitrost v primerjavi s francoskim zaradi aktivnejšega delovanja zapestja. Pri tremolu se z večjo trdoto palic povečujeta frekvenca udarcev in hitrost palic, s čimer skušamo čim bolj zabrisati učinek posameznih udarcev. Izjema pri hitrosti je tremolo s težkimi palicami, kjer je hitrost zaradi večje mase palic nekoliko nižja, timpanist pa poveča frekvenco z nižjo amplitudo oziroma višino tremoliranja. Iz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov je razvidno, da se barva zvena timpanov dejansko spreminja, kar lahko timpanist s pridom izkorišča pri izvajalski praksi. Ne le menjava palic, za katero med igranjem velikokrat ni dovolj časa, ampak tudi uporaba različnih tehnik in prijemov palic vpliva na barvo tona, ki jo iščemo glede na glasbeni okvir določenega dela skladbe, pri čemer se odločamo za zlivanje z orkestrom ali kontrastiranje. S takšnim pristopom lahko rečemo, da na timpane igramo in ne samo tolčemo. Bibliografija Beck, John H.. Encyclopedia of percussion. New York, London: Garland publ., Campbell, Murray in Greated, Clive. The Musician s Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schrimer Books, Forsyth, Cecil. Orchestration. New York: Dover Publications, 1982, 1. izd. London: Macmillan, Hall, Donald E.. Musical Acoustics, 2. izd.. Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Ravnikar, Bruno. Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike. Ljubljana: DZS, Rayleigh Strutt, John W.. The Theory of Sound. 2. izd.. New York: Dover Publications, 1945, 1. izd Schweizer, Steven L.. Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music. New York: Oxford University Press, Wagner, Andreas. Analysis of Drumbeats Interaction between Drummer, Drumstick and Instrument: PhD diss.. Stockholm: Kraljevi inštitut za tehnologijo,

120 SUMMARY The sound of the timpani is primarily defined by the type and material of the instrument, as well as through the playing style of the musician. While there is much knowledge and research on the instrument (e.g. the vibration characteristics of timpani heads), there is a lack of scientific research on the playing technique. This research focuses on the acoustical aspect of striking the timpani. The goal was to confirm whether a timpanist can perform different colours of the sound on the timpani, exploring different grips and playing styles to change the degree of articulation. Visual and audio recordings of striking the timpani were made, using five different mallets, varying tensions of membrane (c and f), played with two different articulations (legato, staccato) and grips (French, American), plus tremolo was played with three different mallets. In order to analyze them in slow motion, different strokes were first registered using high-speed camera with several thousand pictures per second. Then sound recordings of different strokes were made. High-speed video analysis shows different contact time between the mallet and the membrane, depending on which mallet is used. It is, of course, longer with soft mallets, but also the weight of the mallet plays a very important part. Results show that heavy mallets have longer contact time although they are very hard. Increasing the tension of the membrane decreases the time of contact between the mallet and the membrane. Velocity of the mallet depends on which type of the mallet grip or style is being used in the same dynamics (forte). Therefore, the staccato stroke has a higher speed of the mallet, compared to a legato stroke, and the contact time is shorter, on account of a tighter staccato grip and a quick motion of the wrist during rebound. Equally, the American grip has a higher speed of the mallet compared to the French grip because of the quicker motion of the wrist. The impact on the sound is seen from the spectrograms of sound recordings. With tremolo, three pairs of mallets were tested. When harder mallets are used, the frequency of the strokes and the mallet speed have to increase, tending to reduce the clarity of each stroke. There is an exception with the mallet speed: when tremolo is played using hard and heavy mallets, the speed of the sticks is slightly lower because of the bigger mass of the mallets, but we can increase the frequency with keeping them closer to the membrane. Different spectrograms of recorded sounds prove that the tone colour actually differs, so a timpanist should be aware that not only the changing mallets but also the applying of different techniques could change the colour of the sound, in accordance with the musical context or the timpanist s wish to blend with the orchestra. In instrumental practice, timpanists also wish to follow the articulation demands of composers as much as possible, but there is often no time to change mallets while playing, so different grips serve very well to achieve a proper colour of the sound. 120

121 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... UDK (086.7) DOI: /mz Zoran Potočan Ravnikarjeva ulica 4, 1230 Domžale Analiza zvena višjih in srednjih moških pevskih glasov s historičnih posnetkov Analysis of the Timbre of High and Middle Voiced Male Singing Voices in Historical Recordings Prejeto: 10. september 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: analiza zvena, pevski glasovi, historični posnetki, akustične lastnosti pevskega glasu IZVLEČEK Avtor v prispevku analizira zven pevcev, ki na izbranih historičnih posnetkih pojejo v slovenskem jeziku. Iz digitalnih presnetkov starih gramofonskih plošč (78 o/min) je s pomočjo zvenske analize mogoče, kljub slabši tehnični kakovosti posnetkov, dovolj zanesljivo sklepati o načinu fonacije takratnih pevcev in o estetskih značilnostih njihovega izvajanja ter to primerjati z njihovimi in našimi sodobniki. Received: 10th September 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: Timbre analysis, singing voices, historical recordings, acoustic properties of singing voice ABSTRACT In the article, the author analyses the timbre of male singers singing in Slovenian language in chosen historical recordings. Using timbre analysis of digital copies of old 78-rpm records it is possible, despite lower technical quality of the recordings, to deduce with sufficient reliability the manner of phonation of the male singers of the time and the aesthetic properties of their performance, as well as to compare it with their and our contemporaries. Uvod Predmet študije je analiza zvena (ang. timbre) 1 solističnih pevskih glasov na presnetkih historičnih zvočnih zapisov z gramofonskih plošč (78 o/min). Originalni posnetki so nastali v ZDA med letoma 1917 in 1931, ko so številna gramofonska podjetja, med 1 Christian Herbst,»Voice timbre in singing«, obiskano , redaktion/dateien_europa_cantat/ga_namur/christianherbst_timbre_in_singing.pdf:

122 njimi vodilni gramofonski družbi Victor in Columbia, za komercialne namene snemala pripadnike posameznih etničnih skupin priseljencev, tako tudi Slovence. Zgodnejši posnetki (do l. 1925) so bili večinoma posneti akustično, kasnejši (po l. 1927) pa izključno električno. 2 Na obravnavanih posnetkih 3 se solistično pojavljajo višji (tenorji: Obrad Djurin 4 posnetek OD 01, Frank Plut 5 posnetka FP 01 in FP 02, Rudolf Banovec 6 posnetek AŠ RB 03) ter srednji (bariton: Anton Šubelj 7 posnetki AŠ 01, AŠ 02, AŠ RB 03) moški glasovi, ob spremljavi klavirja (posnetka AŠ 02 in AŠ RB 03), manjših instrumentalnih skupin (posnetki FP 01, FP 02 in AŠ 01) ali pihalne godbe (posnetek OD 01). 8 Pevski solisti na analiziranih posnetkih izvajajo pretežno ljudsko glasbo in glasbo v ljudskem duhu, med njimi pa najdemo tudi slovenski samospev in operni duet. Med bolj znanimi avtorji skladb zasledimo Jurija Flajšmana, Antona Nedvĕda, Josipa Pavčiča, Viktorja Parmo, Miroslava Vilharja in Bedřicha Smetano. 9 Za primerjavo s pevci, ki pojejo v slovenskem jeziku, sta bila vzeta še posnetka dveh slavnih pevcev iz preteklosti Enrica Carusa in Mattie Battistinija (MB 01, EC 01) ter posnetka dveh sodobnih slovenskih opernih solistov Andreja Debevca in Roberta Vrčona (AD 01, RV 01). Osnovni namen prispevka je odgovoriti na vprašanje, ali je mogoče s historičnih posnetkov dovolj zanesljivo analizirati zven pevcev in iz tega sklepati o estetskih ter pevskotehničnih parametrih njihovega izvajanja. Tako na podlagi teoretičnih spoznanj o akustičnih značilnostih pevskega glasu in s pomočjo empirične analize zvena želi pokazati enega od pristopov k razlagi principov fonacije v funkciji glasbe. Teoretično se raziskava naslanja na Sundbergovo razpravo The Acoustics of the Singing Voice 10, v kateri so predstavljena osnovna izhodišča za razumevanje povezave med fiziološkimi in akustičnimi zakonitostmi delovanja pevskega glasu, kar avtor pozneje nadgradi v The Science of the Singing Voice 11. Glede na teoretična izhodišča je bila določena metodologija obravnave izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, predvsem določitev ustreznega frekvenčnega območja za analizo 2 Drago Kunej,»Med kodami skrita zvočna dediščina Slovencev«, Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva, letn. 54, št. 1 (2014): Posnetki so označeni z začetnicama imena in priimka pevskega solista ter zaporedno številko: FP 02 za drugi posnetek Franka Pluta ipd.. V primeru drugega vzorca z istega posnetka je dodana še mala črka: FP 02a ipd.. V kolikor je bil posnetek analiziran do 10kHz, je dodatno označena frekvenca: FP khz ipd. Če gre za duet, vsebuje oznaka začetnice imen in priimkov obeh pevcev: AŠ RB 03, na tem posnetku pojeta Anton Šubelj in Rudolf Banovec. Pod spektrogrami so posnetki enako označeni: FP 02 ipd. Ko gre za diagram vibrata, je dodana velika črka V: FP 02 V ipd. 4 Obrad Djurin ( ), tenorist srbske narodnosti je v letih 1917 in 1918 posnel več slovenskih pesmi za založbo Victor, tudi pod psevdonimoma Obrad Žurin in Janez Gregorc (Charles F. Debevec,»Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): Frank Plut ( ), tenorist iz Clevelanda je leta 1931 tudi kot solist snemal za založbo Columbia (Charles F. Debevec,»Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): Rudolf Banovec ( ), lirični tenorist, angažiran v ljubljanski Operi (Slovenski biografski leksikon, obiskano , 7 Anton Šubelj ( ), operni pevec, baritonist je med letoma 1928 in 1930 večkrat snemal za založbo Columbia (Charles F. Debevec,»Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): Pevski glasovi ter nekatera pihala in trobila so se tudi na zgodnjih posnetkih dokaj realistično zvočno zapisali (Drago Kunej,»Slovenski posnetki na gramofonskih ploščah z 78 o/min«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): 16) 9 Urša Šivic,»Gramofonske plošče z 78 obrati na minuto - izraz ponarodelosti ali vzrok zanjo?«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, 2014): Johan Sundberg, The Acoustics of the Singing Voice (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977). 11 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987). 122

123 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... tako historičnih, kot sodobnih posnetkov, glede na njihovo tehnično kakovost in akustične značilnosti pevskega glasu. Metodologija analize izbranih posnetkov Za analizo so služili deli digitalnih presnetkov (pod oznakami OD, FP in AŠ, 16 - bit, 44,1 khz) gramofonskih plošč (78 o/min) iz Zvočnega arhiva GNI ZRC SAZU, za nekaj primerjav pa še posnetki iz arhiva avtorja (pod oznakami AD in RV, 16 - bit, 48 khz) ter iz internetnih virov (pod oznakami MB in EC, 16 - bit, 22,05 khz). Spektralna analiza frekvenčnega območja do 10 khz dveh historičnih posnetkov (slika 1, 2) je pokazala, da je vzorce smiselno analizirati do 5 khz, saj so harmonski toni pétih vokalov dovolj izraženi le do te frekvence. Praktično vsi formanti samoglasnikov se namreč nahajajo v območju do 3000 Hz 12, višje pa so zaradi šuma ter nizke jakosti težko določljivi in kot taki ne vplivajo bistveno na zaznavo pevskega zvena. Takratne snemalne naprave so imele frekvenčni obseg le do približno 3 khz 13, zato analiza nad 5 khz ni potrebna. Podobno velja tudi za današnje, tehnično precej boljše posnetke (slika 3, 4), kjer je popačenj in šuma veliko manj, frekvenčni obseg pa bistveno večji. Tudi v tem primeru je nivo zvočnega pritiska višjeharmonskih frekvenc petih vokalov nad 5 khz praktično zanemarljiv. POSNETKI: FP khz (slika 1); AŠ khz (slika 2); - AD khz (slika 3); RV khz (slika 4) 14 Slika 1: FP khz. 12 Husnija Kurtović, Ozvučavanje (Beograd: Tehnička knjiga, 1985), Drago Kunej, Fonograf je dospel! (Ljubljana, Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2008), Z navpično črto je označena meja 5 khz (slika 1), najmočnejša frekvenca, višja od 5 khz (slika 2), osnovna frekvenca fₒ (slika 3, 4). 123

124 Slika 2: AŠ khz. Slika 3: AD khz. Slika 4: RV khz. 124

125 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Po večkratnem poslušanju so bili določeni zvočni vzorci in s pomočjo računalniškega programa Audacity izrezani deli posnetkov dolžine 20 s, na katerih se nahajajo mesta v skladbah, kjer petje zaradi tesiture, oz. dinamike prevladuje do te mere, da je instrumentalna spremljava dovolj pokrita in je spektrografska analiza pétega zvoka mogoča (največkrat najvišji ton v skladbi). Komentirani in med seboj primerjani so najznačilnejši, oz. zanimivejši vzorci po izboru avtorja. Zapeti toni se med seboj, razen v določenih primerih, razlikujejo tako po petem samoglasniku, višini in trajanju, kot tudi po funkciji v posameznih skladbah (prehodni ton, delni višek, zaključni ton, ipd.). Prav zato je rezultate težje primerjati, nenazadnje tudi zaradi različnosti tipov obravnavanih glasov. Z računalniškim programom VoceVista 16 je bila opravljena vizualizacija frekvenčnega in dinamičnega spektra pétega zvoka (spektrogram) ter določitev osnovnih parametrov vibrata zapetega tona (hitrost in obseg). Tako dobljeni rezultati (slika 9 34) so, v povezavi s slušnim vtisom, služili kot osnova za določitev tipa glasu in različnih načinov ozvočevanja odzvočne cevi vokalnega trakta pri posameznem pevcu 17 ter za vrednotenje pevskega zvena in vibrata 18, (tabela 1, 2, 3). Alikvotna vrsta in njena relativna jakost, formanti (Fn), ki podpirajo določene harmonske tone (Hn), ter morebitna prisotnost in pozicija klastra v območju pevskega formanta (PF) namreč bistveno vplivajo na barvo pevskega glasu in skupaj z vibratom v veliki meri določajo njegov karakter. Človeški glas je instrument, ki ga v ožjem smislu sestavljajo: pljuča dovodnik energije, glasilke oscilator ter grlo, žrelo, ustna in nosna votlina rezonatorji. Akustične značilnosti takšnega rezonančnega prostora določata lega in oblika artikulatorjev: grla, mehkega neba, jezika, čeljusti ter ustnic, ki vplivajo na vzdolžni in prečni prerez vokalnega trakta odzvočne cevi, v kateri se nihanje zraka oblikuje v zven. 19 Zvok človeškega glasu je kompleksen zven. Sestavljajo ga: osnovna frekvenca (fₒ), ki je določena s hitrostjo enostavnega nihanja glasilk in mnoge višjeharmonske frekvence (Hn), kot posledica kompleksnega nihanja glasilk. Vokalni trakt je akustični rezonator, v katerem se zvok oblikuje v odvisnosti od frekvenc, prisotnih v spektru zvočnega izvora in od rezonančnih frekvenc vokalnega trakta formantov (Fn). 20 Bližje kot se alikvoti formantom nahajajo, večja bo njihova relativna amplituda. Tako se bistveno spremeni diagram osnovnega nihanja, pojavijo se dinamični viški na področjih formantnih frekvenc, ki jih določa geometrija vokalnega trakta. Zmanjšanje prereza takšne odzvočne cevi na mestu, kjer ima stojni val svoj minimum, ima za posledico znižanje frekvence določenega formanta in obratno, če se na istem mestu prerez cevi poveča, se s tem dvigne frekvenca tega formanta, sprememba pa vpliva tudi na vse ostale formante. Pri govoru in petju premikamo artikulatorje ter tako spreminjamo kombinacije formantnih frekvenc, ki jih naši možgani povezujejo z različnimi vokali (predvsem prvi 15 Audacity , brezplačen urejevalnik digitalnega zvoka ( 11. apr. 2013). 16 VoceVista , računalniški program za analizo glasu (Miller, Donald G., Resonance in Singing (Delaware: Inside View press, 2008). 17 Nathalie Henrich, John Smith, Joe Wolfe,»Vocal tract resonances in singing: Strategies used by sopranos, altos, tenors, and baritones«, obiskano , 1 3; Donald G. Miller, Resonance in Singing (Delaware, Inside View press, 2008), Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (Belmont: Schirmer, 1996), Johan Sundberg, The Acoustics of the Singing Voice (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977), Ibid.,

126 in drugi formant F1, F2). Bolj kot so usta odprta, višja je frekvenca prvega formanta, pozicija jezika nad korenom je odločilna za frekvenco drugega in oblika vrha jezika za frekvenco tretjega formanta. Če primerjamo moški govor s petjem opernega pevca, opazimo v prvi vrsti nekatere kvalitativne spremembe v zvenu vokalov, ki so največkrat posledica znižane pozicije grla in s tem podaljšanja vokalnega trakta ter širitve spodnjega dela žrela. To se v zvenu odraža kot znižanje frekvenc prvih dveh formantov, pojavi pa se tudi povečanje amplitude v območju med približno 2500 in 3000 Hz, kar imenujemo območje pevskega formanta (PF). 21 POSNETEK: ZP 00 (Slika 5, 6) 22 Slika 5: ZP 00. Slika 6: ZP Ibid., Frekvenčni spekter govora basista (ton As, vokal a) z dobro vidnimi pozicijami prvih štirih formantov (slika 5) in petja basista (slika 6) v nizki legi (ton B, vokal a) z močno izraženim območjem pevskega formanta (Potočan, Zoran, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.),

127 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Fenomen pevskega formanta povezuje Sundberg z zbližanjem tretjega in četrtega (pétega) formanta, ki ojačita prisotne harmonske frekvence, kot posledica pa se pojavi dinamični višek v obliki klastra. Ta se pojavlja pretežno pri šolanih glasovih in je bistven za slišnost pevca, ki poje ob instrumentalni spremljavi. Pevski formant je prisoten v frekvenčnem območju, kjer orkester ni več tako izrazit, saj ta doseže največjo jakost pri približno 450 Hz, po tem pa amplituda dokaj strmo pada. 23 POSNETEK: NG 00 (Slika 7, 8) 24 Slika 7: NG 00. Slika 8: NG Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, Frekvenčni spekter petja basista (Ghiaurov, Nicolai, (izv.), Grandi Voci, Decca, 1963, (prod.), 1996 Decca) v srednji legi (ton a, vokal a) s šibko (Slika 7) in v visoki legi (ton e¹, vokal o) z močno prisotnostjo orkestra (Slika 8). 127

128 Pri moških glasovih leži področje pevskega formanta približno pri frekvencah: Hz pri basu, Hz pri baritonu in Hz pri tenorju. 25 Za primerjavo med glasovi s historičnih gramofonskih plošč (tabela 1) so bili vzeti deli posnetkov, na katerih pojejo pevci podobno visoko, vsak izmed njih načeloma že v svoji visoki legi, t.j. nad drugim prehodom: tenor (Frank Plut, slika 11, 12), tenor (Obrad Djurin, slika 13, 14), bariton (Anton Šubelj, slika 21, 22) in tenor (Rudolf Banovec, slika 23, 24) Analiza delov posnetkov dveh sodobnikov (Enrico Caruso 26, slika 17, 18 in Mattia Battistini 27, slika 25, 26) je predstavljena za primerjavo z zvenom drugih dveh vzorcev zgoraj omenjenih tenorja (Frank Plut, slika 15, 16) in baritona (Anton Šubelj, slika 21, 22). V tem primeru pojeta tenorja isti ton, vokal je soroden, enako baritona (tabela 2). Podane so tudi vizualizacije vzorcev po enega tenorja (Frank Plut, slika 27, 28) in baritona (Anton Šubelj, slika 31, 32) za primerjavo z zvenoma dveh današnjih pevcev (Andrej Debevec 28, slika 29, 30 in Robert Vrčon 29, slika 33, 34), pri čemer pojeta tenorja isti ton in vokal, prav tako baritona (tabela 3). Sledi opis analize izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, ki so bili iz historičnih posnetkov izpostavljeni kot najizrazitejši oz. najznačilnejši za posameznega pevskega solista in katere je mogoče primerjati med seboj ter s sodobnimi posnetki. Izsledki - analiza izbranih posnetkov POSNETEK: FP 01 (slika 9, 10) Na posnetku poje visok moški glas tenor (Plut) odlomek iz Nedve dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave. Gre za mesto dinamičnega in izraznega viška na koncu kitice, vokal je i in ton g1. Najmočneje je prisotna osnovna frekvenca (v nadaljevanju fₒ, oz. H1), torej prvi harmonik, podprt s prvim formantom samoglasnika (v nad. F1/H1), sledi ji četrti harmonik, ojačen z drugim formantom (v nad. F2/H4). Izstopa še sedma harmonska frekvenca v območju t.i. pevskega formanta (v nad. PF), okrog 2,8 khz, poudarjena najverjetneje s pomočjo tretjega formanta (v nad. F3/H7), ki doda zvenu nekaj prezence (slika 9). Kljub legi nad tenorskim drugim prehodom (it. secondo passaggio), pevec ne pokriva v celoti, zato se kvaliteta samoglasnika z lego le malo spremeni, kar priča o visokem naravnem glasu. Zven je relativno poln, saj je dovolj zaznavna prisotnost prvih osmih harmonskih frekvenc z najbolj izraženo osnovno. 30 Vibrato (slika 10) je zaradi pevčeve tendence, da bi ustvaril lokalni ekspresivni višek, nekoliko hitrejši, s srednjo spremembo tonske višine, nekaj več kot četrtine tona. 25 Jurgen Meyer, Acoustics and Performance of Music (Oxford, Springer, 2009), Enrico Caruso ( ), italijanski tenorist.»caruso je naredil gramofon in gramofon je naredil Carusa«(Jens M. Fischer, Grosse Stimmen (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 1995), 1). 27 Mattia Battistini ( ), italijanski baritonist, imenovan tudi»kralj baritonov«(fischer, Grosse Stimmen, 27). 28 Andrej Debevec (1959), tenorist, solist SNG Opera in balet Ljubljana. 29 Robert Vrčon (1960), baritonist, solist SNG Opera in balet Ljubljana. 30 Bruno Ravnikar, Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike (Ljubljana, DZS, 1999),

129 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Odlomek:»Kje prijazne ste višave«, 31»užil«(C-dur, g¹ - i; slika 9, 10) Slika 9: FP 01. Slika 10: FP 01 V. POSNETEK: FP 02 (slika 11, 12; tabela 1) Tudi v tem primeru poje tenor, najverjetneje isti pevec (Plut), kot na prejšnjem posnetku. V odlomku iz valčka Viktorja Parme poje ponavljajoči se zlog la na tonu g1, ki je prehoden, vendar najvišji ton v tem delu skladbe. Najmočnejša je kombinacija F1/ H2, precej šibkejša pa F2/H4 (slika 11), iz česar bi se dalo sklepati, da je, zaradi nekoliko tršega zastavka (nem. Knödel), F2 dokaj visoko pozicioniran in zato podpira H4. V območju PF močno izstopa F3/H7, kar daje zvenu značilno svetlobo, nekoliko šibkejši je F4/H9. Vibrato ima zmeren obseg 55 c, je pa s 7,8 Hz relativno hiter (slika 12). Pevec s tem verjetno poskuša kompenzirati nekoliko prenizko intonacijo, z lajšanjem telesne opore (it. appoggio) in posledično sproščanjem grla pa v portamentu anticipira prehod na nižji ton, ki sledi v nadaljevanju glasbene fraze. 31 Kje prijazne ste višave (A. Nedvêd). 129

130 Odlomek:»Glasno bi zavrisnil«, 32»la«(B-dur, g¹ - a; slika 11, 12) Slika 11: FP 02. Slika 12: FP 02 V. POSNETEK: OD 01 (slika 13, 14; Tabela 1) Vzorec vsebuje zaključek srednjega dela Vilharjeve pesmi Mila, mila lunica. Tokrat je zaslediti drugačen pristop k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Visok tenor (Djurin) poje tudi tu v visoki legi, le pol tona nižje, vokal pa je i, kar je eden od razlogov za to, da je najmočnejši F1/H1 (slika 13). Prvi formant vokala i leži namreč precej nižje, drugi pa višje, kot pri samoglasniku a, zato je najbolj podprt prvi harmonik, torej osnovna frekvenca (fₒ), sledi pa mu skoraj enako močan F2/H6. Slednji je že na robu območja PF, ki vsebuje enakovredne H7, H8 in H10. Gre za izrazito lahek in visok tenor (it. tenore leggero), zato je vokal zapet odprto (it. aperto) in ostane, kljub visoki legi, kvalitativno nespremenjen. Vibrato (slika 14) je zaradi mirnega in liričnega mesta v skladbi manj izrazit. 32 Št. 9 Entrée valček, Urh, grof celjski (A. Funtek, V. Parma). 130

131 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Odlomek:»Mila, mila lunica«, 33»obljubila«(Des-dur, ges¹ - i; slika 13, 14) Slika 13: OD 01. Slika 14: OD 01 V. 33 Mila, mila lunica (F. Prešeren, M. Vilhar). 131

132 Glas/ slika Ton/vokal/ fₒ Vzorec posnetek Dinamika Vibrato hitrost/ obseg F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ PF FP 02 Tenor 11, 12 g¹/a fₒ=393 Hz mf 7,8 Hz/ 55 c F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7/ 2,7-3,5 khz OD 01 Tenor 13, 14 ges¹/i fₒ=367 Hz mf 6,4 Hz/ 59 c F1/H1 F2/H6 F3-4/H7-9/ 2,6-3,7 khz AŠ 02 Bariton 21, 22 f¹/a fₒ=354 Hz f 5,5 Hz/ 73 c F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6-8/ 2,1-2,8 khz AŠ RB 03 Tenor 23, 24 fis¹/a fₒ=380 Hz f 6,7 Hz/ 104 c F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H7 2,7 khz Tabela 1 34 POSNETEK: FP 02a (slika 15, 16; tabela 2) Isti posnetek, kot FP 02, le da na tem vzorcu tenor (Plut) poje zaključni ton Nedve - dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave, vokal a na tonu b¹, ki je dinamični in obenem izrazni višek pesmi. Lega je visoka, tako tudi dinamika. Izstopa ozvočevanje F2/H3 (slika 15), kar se ujema s spremembo kvalitete vokala a proti ae, s čimer je pevec prva dva formanta nekoliko zvišal in ju uglasil z drugim in tretjim harmonikom. Odlomek:»Glasno bi zavrisnil«, 35»la«(B - dur, b¹ - a; slika 15, 16) Slika 15: FP 02a. 34 Iz tabele 1 lahko kljub temu, da pojejo vsi v visoki legi, razberemo nekatere razlike v pristopu pevcev sodobnikov k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Na barvo posameznega glasu najbolj vplivata najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika (Fn/Hn), ki je označena v krepkem tisku ter višek v območju pevskega formanta (PF), v kolikor obstaja (gl. spektrograme). 35 Št. 9 Entrée valček, Urh, grof celjski (A. Funtek, V. Parma). 132

133 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Slika 16: FP 02a V. POSNETEK: EC 01 (slika 17, 18; tabela 2) Podoben način ozvočevanja zasledimo na zvočnem vzorcu, kjer tenorist (Caruso) poje odlomek arije Maria Cavaradossija iz Puccinijeve opere Tosca. Ton je ravno tako b¹, le da je vokal o, ki ga spreminja v oa. S to prilagoditvijo vokalnega trakta doseže močno podporo F2/H3 (slika 17). Višek območja PF leži pri tem relativno nizko (cca. 2,3 khz), kar daje zvenu baritonalni karakter, za razliko od zgoraj omenjenega tenorja, ki zveni svetleje, saj je njegov PF najizrazitejši pri okoli 2,8 khz. Parametri vibrata (slika 16, 18) so pri obeh pevcih podobni in srednjih vrednosti. Odlomek:»E lucevan le stelle«, 36»amato«(c-mol, b¹ - o ; slika 17, 18) Slika 17: EC E lucevan le stelle, Tosca (L. Illica, G. Giacosa, G. Puccini). 133

134 Slika 18: EC 01 V. POSNETEK: AŠ 01 (slika 19, 20) V tem primeru poje srednji moški glas, bariton (Šubelj) koroško ljudsko pesem Gor čez jezero, analiziran pa je zven vokala a na držanem tonu e1. Najmočnejša je druga harmonska frekvenca (slika 19), ki jo podpira prvi formant vokala, sledi pa ji četrta, podprta z drugim formantom (F1/H2, F2/H4). V območju t.i. pevskega formanta (PF) je najbolj izražen deveti harmonik, pri cca. 2,8 khz, verjetno poudarjen s tretjim formantom (F3/ H9), kar prispeva k svetlejšemu zvenu. Zapeti ton leži načeloma na zgornjem prehodu za lirski bariton, kjer pa pevcu še ni potrebno pokrivati, kar kaže na višji glas (tenorbariton). Močnejša sta le drugi in četrti harmonik, zaradi česar zveni glas nekoliko manj polno, deveti pa je skoraj enako močan kot prvi in dodaja glasu prezenco. Vibrato (slika 20) ima povprečen obseg dobre četrtine tona in je hitrostno dokaj zmeren. Odlomek:»Gor čez jezero«, 37»mamica«(G-dur, e¹ - a, slika 19, 20) Slika 19: AŠ Gor čez jezero (koroška ljudska). 134

135 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Slika 20: AŠ 01 V. POSNETEK: AŠ 02 (slika 21, 22; tabela 1, 2) Na tem vzorcu poje lirski bariton (Šubelj) Pavčičev samospev Ciciban. Pevec poje vokal a na zaključnem tonu pesmi f¹. Najizrazitejša je kombinacija F1/H2, sledi ji F2/ H3 (slika 21), obe pa ležita relativno nizko, kar kaže na to, da je bil ton zapet pokrito (it. coperto). To potrjuje tudi sprememba kvalitete vokala, saj pevec a barva v temnejši oa. Odlomek:»Ciciban teče v zeleni dan«,38»dan«(f-dur, f¹ - a; slika 21, 22) Slika 21: AŠ Ciciban (O. Župančič, J. Pavčič). 135

136 Slika 22: AŠ 02 V. POSNETEK: AŠ RB 03 (slika 23, 24; tabela 1) Na tem posnetku poje karakterni tenor (Banovec) z baritonistom Šubljem duet Kecala in Vaška iz Smetanove opere Prodana nevesta. Vokal je a in ton fis¹, podobno kot pri prejšnjem posnetku. Podobna je tudi slika frekvenčnega spektra in to kljub temu, da gre v tem primeru za višji glas. Tudi tu je namreč najmočnejši F1/H2, zelo blizu je F2/H3 (slika 23). Območje PF ima višek okrog 2,7 khz in sovpada z disonančnim H7. Pevec poje zelo karikirano, zato tudi izrazit vibrato z obsegom dobre polovice tona (slika 24). Odlomek:»Vem za mladenko«, 39»zlata«(G-dur, fis¹ - a; slika 23, 24) Slika 23: AŠ RB Vem za mladenko, Prodana nevesta (K. Sabina, B. Smetana). 136

137 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Slika 24: AŠ RB 03 V. POSNETEK: MB 01 (slika 25, 26; tabela 2) V tem primeru poje baritonist (Battistini) odlomek dueta Rigoletta in Gilde iz Verdijeve opere Rigoletto. Pevec poje vokal o na tonu f¹, ki je prehoden, vendar najvišji in najizrazitejši v tem delu skladbe. Samoglasnik o odpira v oa in tako z zvišanima prvima dvema formantoma podpira drugi in četrti harmonik (F1/H2, F2/H4). Višek območja PF se nahaja pri 2,4 khz, kjer dominira H7 (slika 25). Ta je prvi disonančni harmonik v alikvotni vrsti, ki pripomore v tem primeru k malce agresivnejšemu karakterju zvena. Tega pri Šublju ni zaslediti, saj se pri njem v območju PF izraziteje pojavi F3/H6, pri čemer je šesti harmonik konsonančen, nekaj prezence dodaja še kombinacija F4/H8. Parametri vibrata (slika 22, 26) so pri obeh baritonih primerljivi, srednjih vrednosti. Odlomek:»Si, vendetta«, 40»solo«(As-dur, f¹ - o ; slika 25, 26) Slika 25: MB Si, vendetta, Rigoletto (F. M. Piave, G. Verdi). 137

138 Slika 26: MB 01 V. Vzorec - posnetek Glas/ slika Ton/vokal/ fₒ Dinamika Vibrato - hitrost/ obseg F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ PF FP 02a Tenor 15, 16 b¹/a fₒ=472 Hz f 7,0 Hz/ 60 c F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6/ 2,8 khz EC 01 Tenor 17, 18 b¹/ȏ fₒ=472 Hz f 6,6 Hz/ 50 c F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H5-8/ 2,3-3,7 khz AŠ 02 Bariton 21, 22 fₒ/a fₒ=354 Hz f 5,5 Hz/ 73 c F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6-8/ 2,1-2,8 khz MB 01 Bariton 25, 26 fₒ/ȏ fₒ=354 Hz f 5,7 Hz/ 59 c F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7/ 2,4 khz Tabela 2 41 POSNETKI: FP 01a (slika 27, 28); AD 01 (slika 29, 30); AŠ 01a (slika 31, 32); RV 01 (slika 33, 34); (vsi tabela 3) Oba tenorja (Plut, Debevec) pojeta vokal e na tonu e¹, torej med prvim in drugim prehodom (it. passaggio). Na historičnem posnetku poje pevec (Plut - isti posnetek, kot FP 01) odlomek iz Nedve dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave, tokrat gre za ton e¹, vokal pa je e. V spektru je najmočnejša kombinacija F2/H4, ki ji sledi F1/H2, v območju PF izstopa H8 pri okoli 2,7 khz (slika 27). Prvi štirje harmoniki so zelo izraziti, zaradi česar zveni glas dovolj polno, k zaokroženosti zvena nekaj prispeva tudi delni višek območja PF. Na posnetku sodobnega tenorja (Debevec) slišimo niz samoglasnikov na istem 41 V tabeli 2 je predstavljena primerjava med dvema slovenskima pevcema in njunima sodobnikoma svetovnega formata. V tem primeru pevci s sorodnimi glasovi v isti legi na podoben način ozvočujejo vokalni trakt, vsaj kar se prvih dveh formantov tiče. Tako imata na razliko v barvi med posameznimi glasovi večji vpliv lega in jakost harmonskih tonov v območju pevskega formanta (PF, gl. spektrograme). Najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika posameznega vzorca (Fn/Hn) je v krepkem tisku. 138

139 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... tonu. V njegovem spektru je najbolj poudarjen F1/H2, nekoliko manj F2/H3, v področju PF je opaziti rahlo izstopajoča F3/H7 okrog 2,4 khz in F4/H10 pri 3,1 khz (slika 29). Relativno močnih je kar prvih deset harmonikov, kar daje glasu izrazito prodornost, v območju PF so opazno prisotni H7 10, ki dajejo zvenu značilno svetlobo. Frekvenca vibrata je pri obeh vzorcih identična, njegov obseg pa je na starejšem posnetku nekoliko večji (slika 28, 30). Odlomek:»Kje prijazne ste višave«, 42»planine«(C-dur, e¹ - e ; slika 27, 28) Slika 27: FP 01a. Slika 28: FP 01a V. 42 Kje prijazne ste višave (A. Nedvĕd). 139

140 Odlomek:»Aeiou«,»e«(e¹ - e ; slika 29, 30) Slika 29: AD 01. Slika 30: AD 01 V. Obravnavana baritona (Šubelj, Vrčon) pojeta vokal a na tonu d¹, ki leži za srednji moški glas, tako kot prej pri tenorjih e¹, v t.i. pasaži. Na prvem posnetku poje pevec (Šubelj - isti posnetek, kot AŠ 01) koroško ljudsko pesem Gor čez jezero. Ton d¹ je ležeč, a prehoden, v spektru pa najbolj izstopa F1/H2, za njim F2/H4. V področju PF je višek precej visoko, okoli 3,1 khz pri H10 (slika 31), kar prispeva k svetlejšemu zvenu glasu, ta je izrazito lirične narave. Sodobni bariton (Vrčon) poje na tem posnetku niz samoglasnikov na istem tonu. Najmočneje ozvočuje F1/H2, in le malo manj F2/H3, v območju PF je opazen višek pri H9, okrog 2,7 khz, ki sodoloča značilen baritonalni zven, v tem primeru dramskega karakterja (slika 33). Vibrato je na starejšem posnetku močneje prisoten, je torej hitrejši in večjega obsega (slika 32, 34). 140

141 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Odlomek:»Gor čez jezero«, 43»mamica«(C-dur, d¹ - a; slika 31, 32) Slika 31: AŠ 01a. Slika 32: AŠ 01a V. 43 Gor čez jezero (koroška ljudska). 141

142 Odlomek:»Aeiou«,»a«(d¹ - a; slika 33, 34) Slika 33: RV 01. Slika 34: RV 01 V. Vzorec - posnetek FP 01a Glas/ slika Tenor 27, 28 Ton/ vokal/ fₒ e¹/e fₒ=328 Hz Dinamika mf Vibrato -hitrost/ obseg 5,6 Hz/ 66 c F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ PF F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H8/ 2,7 khz AD 01 AŠ 01a RV 01 Tenor 29, 30 Bariton 31, 32 Bariton 33, 34 e¹/e fₒ=328 Hz d¹/a fₒ=301 Hz d¹/a fₒ=301 Hz f mf f 5,6 Hz/ 43 c 6,0 Hz/ 81 c 4,6 Hz, 58 c F1/H2 F1/H2 F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7-10/ 2,4-3,1 khz F2/H4 F3-4/H10/ 3,1 khz F2/H3 F3-4/H9/ 2,7 khz Tabela Iz tabele 3 je razvidno, da v tem primeru tako historični, kot današnji pevci s sorodnimi glasovi na podoben način ozvočujejo vokalni trakt, predvsem ko gre za prvi in drugi formant, večje pa so razlike v območju pevskega formanta (PF, gl. spektrograme). Najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika posameznega vzorca (Fn/Hn) je v krepkem tisku. 142

143 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Iz interpretacij diagramov in rezultatov v primerjalnih tabelah, kot tudi s pomočjo poslušanja izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, lahko v prvi vrsti razberemo podobnosti in razlike v pristopu posameznih pevcev k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Primerjava štirih pevcev iz časa pred drugo svetovno vojno, ki pojejo na obravnavanih posnetkih v slovenskem jeziku, kaže na to, da kljub primerljivo visoki legi izbirajo različne načine ozvočevanja pevskega trakta (tabela 1). Prav tako se deloma razlikujejo rezultati slovenskih in italijanskih sodobnikov (tabela 2) ter slovenskih pevcev iz preteklosti in sedanjosti (tabela 3). Razlike niso le posledica»patine«na starejših posnetkih, ampak so predvsem rezultat povezave naravnih danosti posameznih pevcev z njihovim načinom fonacije in estetskim nivojem interpretacije. Na starejših posnetkih zvenijo pevski glasovi precej drugače kot na sodobnih, kljub temu, da pojejo vrhunski vokalni izvajalci na historičnih posnetkih v pevskotehničnem smislu podobno kot današnji poklicni operni pevci. Deloma je to posledica slabše tehnične kakovosti posnetkov in drugačnih estetskih meril 45 v zvezi z zvenom pevskega glasu, interpretacijo glasbe ter podajanjem besedila, včasih tudi z izborom samih skladb za snemanje. Predvsem ko gre za t.i.»naturščike«, oz. za pevce z bolj specifičnimi, včasih tudi manj zmogljivimi, ali pa le malo šolanimi glasovi, je zven izrazito drugačen kot pri opernih pevcih, naravno postavljeni glasovi zvenijo namreč dostikrat bolj»ljudsko«.»naravni«in»umetni«pevci se najbolj razlikujejo v njihovih strategijah prilagajanja vokalnega trakta zahtevam izvajane glasbe. Operni pevci predvsem bolj konsistentno uporabljajo telesno oporo in vokalni trakt bolj konstantno uglašujejo, tako s pomočjo variabilno znižane pozicije grla, kot s prilagajanjem ostalih artikulatorjev, glede na višino tona ter péti vokal. Pevci spreminjajo geometrijo odzvočne cevi in s tem prilagajajo njene akustične lastnosti praktično za vsak ton posebej. Na ta način poskušajo, predvsem tisti šolani, spojiti zven posameznih registrov (fr. voix mixte) 46 in se tako zvočno približati»zahodnemu idealu lepega petja«. Sklep Analize spektrogramov in parametrov vibrata se v večini primerov ujemajo s percepcijskimi ocenami posameznih posnetkov, t.j. z estetskim dojemanjem pétega zvoka in so kot take dobrodošel pripomoček pri določanju vzrokov in posledic nastajanja in dojemanja pevskega zvena. Tako lahko skozi poslušanje starejših posnetkov in ustrezno interpretacijo rezultatov meritev 47 dovolj zanesljivo določamo lego, zven in karakter ter sklepamo o tipu glasu, le delno pa o njegovi nosilnosti in absolutni jakosti v prostoru. S poznavanjem vokalne tehnike in akustičnih značilnosti pevskega instrumenta lahko tako s pomočjo tovrstne vizualizacije pétega zvoka podkrepimo slušno predstavo o zvenu in karakterju posameznega pevskega glasu, kar nam nadalje omogoča tudi posredno določanje načina pevčeve fonacije, predvsem vlogo posameznih artikulatorjev 45 Pevski zven kot posledica naravnih zakonov in estetskih principov, slednji se skozi čas spreminjajo (Barbo, 2008). 46 Ivan Lhotka-Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1975), Pri poslušanju naši možgani predelajo vhodno akustično informacijo, ta pa je merljiva (Evangelos Himonides,»Mapping a beautiful voice : theoretical considerations«, obiskano ,

144 pri ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta, deloma pa tudi značaj zastavka (fr. coup de glotte idr.) in telesne opore (it. appoggio). Izkušen opazovalec je sposoben že ob samem poslušanju vrednotiti nivo interpretacije določene glasbene tvarine in izluščiti posamezne estetske značilnosti njenega izvajanja (intonacija / ritem, izraz / intenziteta, zven / karakter, vibrato / tremolo, legato / portamento idr.), z empirično ponazoritvijo pa postanejo omenjene značilnosti samo še bolj evidentne. Ob zavedanju možnih odstopanj zaradi različnih prostorskih in drugih pogojev ter tehnike snemanja (v zgodnjem obdobju snemanja zvoka še ni bilo uveljavljenih norm in standardov 48, so izrisi frekvenčnega spektra kljub starosti izvirnih posnetkov dovolj ilustrativni. Zato je odgovor na vprašanje, ali je mogoče s historičnih posnetkov dovolj zanesljivo analizirati pevski zven, vsekakor pritrdilen. Na podlagi tovrstne analize lahko tako sklepamo ne le o estetskem nivoju interpretacije in tedanji estetiki pétega zvoka, temveč tudi o nekaterih elementih vokalne tehnike takratnih pevcev. Bibliografija Izbrani zvočni viri Posnetek: MB 01, Battistini, Mattia (izv.). Obiskano Victor, 1921 Posnetek: EC 01, Caruso, Enrico (izv.). Obiskano com/watch?v=ekcpkvweny0, Victor, 1909 Posnetek: AD 01, Debevec, Andrej, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan (prod.), Posnetek: OD 01, Djurin, Obrad (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Victor, Posnetek: NG 00, Ghiaurov, Nicolai, (izv.), Grandi Voci, Decca, 1963, (prod.), 1996 Decca. Posnetek: FP 01, Plut, Frank, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, Posnetek: FP 02, Plut, Frank, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, Posnetek: ZP 00, Potočan, Zoran, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.), Posnetek: AŠ 01, Šubelj, Anton, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, Posnetek: AŠ 01, Šubelj, Anton, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, Posnetek: AŠ RB 03, Šubelj, Anton, Rudolf Banovec, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, Posnetek: RV 01, Vrčon, Robert, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.), Navedena literatura Barbo, Matjaž. Izbrana poglavja iz estetike glasbe. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Debevec, Charles F..»Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št 2, Fischer, Jens M., Grosse Stimmen. Berlin: Suhrkamp, Drago Kunej,»Kako hitro se vrtijo plošče z 78 o/min?«, Muzikološki zbornik, letn. XLVI, št.2 (2010):

145 Z. POTOČAN ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH... Henrich, Nathalie, John Smith, Joe Wolfe.»Vocal tract resonances in singing: Strategies used by sopranos, altos, tenors, and baritones«. Obiskano 1. nov phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/reprints/satb.pdf Herbst, Christian.»Voice timbre in singing«,.11. okt Himonides, Evangelos.»Mapping a beautiful voice : theoretical considerations«. Obiskano 27. okt Kunej, Drago. Fonograf je dospel!. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, Kunej, Drago.»Kako hitro se vrtijo plošče z 78 o/min?«. Muzikološki zbornik, letn. XLVI, št.2, Kunej, Drago.»Med kodami skrita zvočna dediščina Slovencev«. Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva, letn. 54, št. 1, Kunej, Drago.»Slovenski posnetki na gramofonskih ploščah z 78 o/min«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, Kurtović, Husnija. Ozvučavanje. Beograd: Tehnička knjiga, Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivan. Umjetnost pjevanja. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, Meyer, Jurgen. Acoustics and Performance of Music. Oxford: Springer, Miller, Donald G.. Resonance in Singing. Delaware: Inside View press, Miller, Richard. The Structure of Singing. Belmont: Schirmer, Ravnikar, Bruno. Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike. Ljubljana: DZS, Sundberg, Johan. The Acoustics of the Singing Voice. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, Sundberg, Johan. The Science of the Singing Voice. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, Slovenski biografski leksikon. Obiskano 22. jun Šivic, Urša.»Gramofonske plošče z 78 obrati na minuto - izraz ponarodelosti ali vzrok zanjo?«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, SUMMARY The subject of study is the analysis of the timbre of solo singing voices in historical audio recordings re-recorded from 78-rpm records. The principal objective of this article is to find out whether a timbre analysis of male singers from older recordings gives adequate results for forming conclusions concerning the aesthetic and vocal technique parameters of their performances. The comparison of four male singers from the period before World War II, who sing in the recordings in Slovenian language and who are subject to this research, has revealed that they tend to use different methods of vocal tract tuning despite their comparable upper range tessitura; the results of Slovenian and Italian contemporaries as well as those of past and contemporary Slovenian singers are also partially different. The differences mostly result from the natural features of individual singers in connection with the method of phonation and the aesthetic level of interpretation of each singer. Analyses of spectrograms and vibrato parameters in most cases match the auditory perception of individual recordings, i.e. the aesthetic perception of the sung sound, and are as such a welcome requisite in determining the causes and consequences of generation and perception of the sung sound. Thus, through listening to older recordings and with proper interpretation of measurement results, we can determine the tessitura, timbre and character reliably enough, and also make appropriate conclusions concerning the type of voice, while we can only partly estimate the carrying power of the singing voice and its absolute strength in the space. 145

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147 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... UDK 784: DOI: /mz Karmen Brina Kodrič, Hotimir Tivadar Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Instrumentalna fonetična analiza pétih samoglasnikov in pravorečje popularnega pétega besedila popevke Instrumental and Phonetic Analysis of Sung Vowels and the Orthoepy of Sung Lyrics of Popular Slovene popevka Songs Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Ključne besede: péto besedilo, pravorečje, péti in govorjeni samoglasnik, formant, neklasično petje IZVLEČEK Bistvo sledeče obravnave je predstaviti uporabnost fonetike v nejezikoslovnih raziskavah, kakršna je glasba (petje). Besedila slovenskih pétih pesmi pri nas fonetično še niso bila raziskana glede na kakovost pétih samoglasnikov in formantnih frekvenc. Gre za lingvistično-muzikološko obravnavo pétih besedil z izhodiščem iz pravorečne norme (ortoepije) slovenskega knjižnega jezika, ki kaže na kakovostno artikulacijo pétih samoglasnikov v primerjavi z govorjenimi. Received: 12th October 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015 Keywords: lyrics, orthoepy, sung and spoken vowel, formant, non-classical singing ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to present the use of phonetics in non-linguitic researches and sciences such as music and singing. Sung Lyrics of Slovenian songs/ poetry have not been investigated phonetically, taking into consideration their quality (vowel formant frequency). The word is about musical art (lyrics), paying attention to the phonetic realization based upon the Slovene language and its norm, which show excellent articulation of the sung vowels. 147

148 1 Uvod Slovenska (evropska) péta pesem ima začetke v gregorijanskem koralu 1, v enoglasnih latinskih liturgičnih in polliturgičnih napevih, sprva brez inštrumentalne spremljave. Gregorijanski koral je edinstven zaklad enoglasne, čisto melodične glasbe, katere besedila so največkrat vzeta iz psalmov izvenbiblični teksti so osnova za nespremenljive dele maše, poetični pa za himnuse 2 in sekvence 3. Od 15. stol. naprej pojejo v zboru tudi ženske, v umetni glasbi pa kot solistke nastopajo šele z začetkom 17. stol. Slovenska zborovska pesem sodi tako po številu pevcev glede na število prebivalstva kot kakovosti zborskega petja v vrh evropskega 4 zborskega ustvarjanja, poleg vezane besede pa so v inštrumentalni glasbi in petju živa tudi zvrstno prozna 5 in dramska dela 6. Petje je prestižno izražanje posameznikov, kadar gre za tehtno umetniško estetsko vrednost in na drugi strani izražanje čustev množice skozi resno, etno, kultno, plesno, programsko, zabavno ali splošno popularno glasbo (»šovbiznis«). Pévec (tudi vokalist) je oseba, ki glasbeno ustvarja z glasom, lahko solistično, s spremljavo drugih glasbenih inštrumentov ali v zboru; petje je eno- ali večglasno, solistično ali zborovsko izvajanje tonskih zaporedij s človeškimi glasovi, ki pa ni nujno vezano na tekst (jodlanje). Po I. Škariću 7 je petje hoteno vodeno tvorjenje glasu, pri katerem zavestno nadziramo dimenzije glasu: ton, trajanje, glasnost, barva in ritem, po Toporišiču 8 pa oblika izgovarjanja besedila takó, da se podaljša trajanje zlogov do določene mere (četrtinka, polovinka kot enote trajanja), ton pa ostane nespremenjen; večinoma le vsak naslednji zlog menja tonsko višino.»pesem 9 danes pomeni krajšo posvetno ali sakralno vokalno kompozicijo, lahko za enega ali več glasov, s spremljavo ali brez nje. Obstaja več vrst pesmi (ljudska, umetna, zborovska), izraz pa se največkrat nanaša na posvetno delo za glas, ki je lahko besedilo sámo ali melodija sama.«1 Prozni napevi»so ali silabični (recitacije preprostih psalmov, evangelijev, lekcij in oracij, številne antifone, nekatere variante Creda) ali pa imajo krajše (Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, Introitus, Comunio) oz. dolge melizme, tj. tone, ki se pojejo na en zlog (Gradual, Tractus, aleluja, ofertoriji). Himnusi in sekvence so pretežno silabični, od napevov s proznimi teksti pa se navadno ločijo ritmični urejenosti in jasni členjenosti.«katarina Bedina idr., Leksikon CZ - Glasba (Ljubljana, 1981), Lat. himnusi so grajeni strogo strofično, sprva obsegajo po osem kitic, ki se pojejo na isto melodijo, vsaka kitica pa ima po štiri jambske dimetre. Melodija je preprosta, silabična in pregledno členjena. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, Ponavljanje motiva na različnih stopnjah tonske lestvice; rel. pesem pri maši med berilom in evangelijem. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, Učna obveza učiteljev glasbe pri nas všteva zborovsko dejavnost; v tej prednjači Zavod svetega Stanislava - Škofijska klasična gimnazija v Ljubljani goji pet pevskih zborov v evropskem merilu, pôje polovica vseh dijakov. 5 Uglasbena proza (npr. Cankarjevi uglasbeni črtici Melodije in Veselejša pesem povest Očenaš hlapca Jerneja) se razlikuje od»prozne glasbe (prose music), ki pomeni vrsto glasbe, v katere zapisu so najpogostejši verbalni elementi, besede in stavki, ki so hkrati lahko, ni pa nujno, tudi napotki za izvajanje«. Nikša Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stoletja (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2012), Opera je odrsko glasbeno delo, v katerem so pevci ob spremljavi orkestra hkrati igralci; znani slovenski libretisti so Ervin Fritz, Vinko Möderndorfer, Andrej Hieng, Ljuba Prenner, Ivan Cankar, Marjan Kozina, Oton Župančič, Fran Gerbič, Luiza Pesjak idr. Prvo opero Belín, napisano v slovenskem jeziku po libretu Antona Feliksa Deva, ki se je ohranil v natisu iz leta 1780 v almanahu Pisanice je uglasbil skladatelj Jakob Frančišek Zupan, alegorično sporočilo opere je naravnano proti tuji nadoblasti in poveličuje slovenstvo. 7 Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Šola retorike, 2005), Jože Toporišič, Enciklopedija slovenskega jezika (Ljubljana: 1992), Alison Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms (Oxford: University Press, 2004),

149 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... 2 Slovenska popularna pesem in popevkarstvo Popularna glasba 10 je»naziv za množično razširjeno glasbo v zadnjih stoletjih, ki se razlikuje tako od folklore kot od klasične ali umetniške glasbe. Od folklore se razlikuje po tem, da je harmonična, notirana in se ne razlikuje od območja do območja ali po etničnih skupinah. Brez velike natančnosti se povezuje z veliko vrstami glasbe, vključuje vpadljive melodijske formule, slike močnih čustev, inštrumentacijo z godali, zborom.«moda popularne glasbe je spremenljiva 11 in če je bila moda popevkarstva pri nas do osemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja enolična, je kasneje postopoma začela simpatizirati z ostalimi glasbenimi zvrstmi. Slovenska popevka 12 je izvorno glasbeno kot besedilno kakovostno klasično zasnovana vokalna skladba. Slovenski skladatelji, avtorji besedil in pevci so ustvarili mnoge večne slovenske pesmi, številno predvajane in pòizvede ne popevke, ki so postale slovenski evergrini 13. Kakovostne (klasične) slovenske popevke se vračajo na lestvice najbolj poslušane glasbe. Popévka 14 je v slovarju SSKJ utemeljena kot vokalna skladba v popularnem ritmu z vsebinsko nezahtevnim besedilom ali umetniško nezahtevna pesem nasploh. Podobno jo opredeljuje leksikon glasbe (1981), le da pred sintagmo»vokalna skladba«pridodaja pridevek popularna. Po razlagi N. Glige 15 je popevka skladba, ki ima največji uspeh znotraj svoje zvrsti in je enaka uspešnici. Potemtakem sta popevka in uspešnica sopomenki, kar ustreza tudi prevodu ang. hit. Popevko umešča v popularno in v zabavno glasbo, ne v pop glasbo, kot to navaja leksikon glasbe 16 in deljeni avtorji. Takšno delitev bomo upoštevali tudi v tem članku, predvsem zato, ker fonetično analiziramo eno prvih slovenskih popevk (1964), iz časa, ko sta bila petje, besedilo še svobodna elementov tujih (zahodnih) jezikovnih primesi. 2.1 Nastajanje pesmi (popevke) Pesem (popevko) tvorijo 1) skladatelj (aranžer z inštrumentalisti) 2) tekstopisec 17 3) pevec oz. interpret(i) 18, pri čemer lahko skladba nastane pred literarnim besedilom 10 Popular music je v Združenih državah Amerike naziv za vrsto zabavne glasbe, katere glavni predstavnik je Frenk Sinatra z milijonskim hitom Strangers in the night skladatelja Berta Kaempferta. Gligo, (2012), V dvajsetih letih charleston, v tridesetih big band in pesmi Gershwina, Porterja, Berlina in Kerna, v štiridesetih Bing Crosby in Frank Sinatra, v petdesetih in šestdesetih se pojavijo mladi poslušalci Elvisa Presleya, Beatlesov in Boba Dylana (Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stoletja, 258), po vzoru slednjega sta pri nas zaslovela Tomaž Pengov in Tomaž Domicelj ; doma se razvije v petdesetih letih in začetku šestdesetih avtorska popularna glasba jazzovskih prvin (pod okriljem RTV Slovenija deluje Revijski orkester Radia Ljubljana, danes Big Bend), z njo dobimo prve slovenske zimzelene melodije, zmagovalna imena Popevke pa permanentno pomembno soustvarjajo popularno glasbo vse do danes. 12 Festival Slovenska popevka poteka vsakoletno od l (po zgledu San Rema in aktualnih sosednjih festivalov: Opatija, Split, Zagreb), z izjemo , po vmesni prekinitvi ponovno ob spremljavi orkestra. Vladimir Frantar, Enkrat še zapoj (Ljubljana: Mohorjeva družba, 2012), Npr. Mandolina, Orion, Poletna noč, Maček v žaklju, Vzameš me v roke, Med iskrenimi ljudmi, Samo nasmeh je bolj grenak, Dan neskončnih sanj 14 Sprva se je imenovala šlager, ok na Dunaju, kar je pomenilo vsakršno pri publiki priljubljeno udarno skladbo. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stol., Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, SP 2001 navaja le tekstopisec namesto besedilopisec, medtem ko SSKJ ne enega ne drugega. 18 tudi izvajalec 149

150 ali obratno; redko nastajata skladba in besedilo istočasno. Ideja (zamisel 19 ali navdih) je osnova nastanku vsake pesmi. Avtorji besedil pa se ločijo tudi po tem, da besedila ustvarjajo primarno ali sekundarno glede na skladbo. Tematika (snov) glasbenega teksta v glavnini določa tematiko literarnega in nasprotno. Zaključno zvočno inštrumentalno-vokalno podobo pesmi sklene glasbeni producent (tonski mojster) tému snemalna oprema in ohranjen zapis ločenih zvočnih posnetkov omogočata dodajanje in odvzemanje, (post)produkcijsko spreminjanje 20 lastnosti zvoka, največkrat: tona, barve, trajanja, jakosti, spremenjenih tudi glede na snemalni vmesnik (mikrofon) 21. Konsonanca je končni smoter pesmi, preden je ta medijsko distribuirana oz. javno predvajana. K nastanku kakovostne pesmi (popevke) prispeva poprejšnja kakovostna komunikacija med ustvarjalci (skladatelj tekstopisec izvajalec producent) v tendenčnem zasledovanju kakovostne komunikacije s poslušalci 22 (ciljno publiko), ki se razlikuje od zvrsti do zvrsti. Popevka tretje četrtine prejšnjega stoletja je kakovostno reprezentativna besedilno-glasbena kompozicija, najprimernejša za začetne fonetično-fonološke raziskave idr. lingvistične meritve znotraj muzikologije zaradi poetične (klasične) zasnove in kakovosti tako glasbe kot besedila. Danes lektorjev v glasbeni produkciji domala ni več, medtem ko so tí popevko do osemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja pravorečno dosledno redigirali. Festival Slovenska popevka sicer še tendenčno vzdržuje glasbeno-literarno odličnost izbranih popevk, pri čemer se trudi ohranjati lépo slovensko besedilo in besedo 23 kljub deljenim mnenjem o glasbeni, besedilni in pevski kakovosti moderne popevke. 3 Péto besedilo V tem prispevku bo pozornost posvečena pesmi in besedilu popevke (angl. lyrics, hrv. riječi, nem. Liedtext) na izgovorni akustični ravni (dikcija), v prispevku imenovano péto besedilo 24. Besedila klasičnih popevk se odlikujejo ravno v diahrono-sinhroni popularnosti besedil in pogostosti aktualizacije. Ni dobre popevke brez dobrega besedila, v popevki se glasbeni in literarni jezik dopolnjujeta, sodelujeta in eden drugega bogatita. Nepisano pravilo mnogih sodobnih avtorjev besedil»hit za vsako ceno«kapitalno naravnanega globalnega glasbenega prostora 25 (hitro in učinkovito) marsikdaj doseže svoj cilj za ceno slabše kakovosti glasbenega besedila in pravorečno slabše pevske izvedbe. 19 Sámo ime pove, da izvira iz misli posameznika. 20 tovrstno spreminjanje zvoka za petje in igranje v živo ni značilno 21 Producent mikrofonu dodaja ali odvzema zvočne učinke po lastni presoji. Slabost mikrofona je, da slabo prenaša frikative, v kolikor oddaljenost ust od snemalnega mikrofona, jakost, artikulacija niso zmerno usklajene in akustično ustrezno uravnane. Prednost petja s pomočjo mikrofona (snemalne tehnike) je predvsem izboljšanje slišnosti manj glasovnega napora, dolgotrajno ohranjanje glasbenega gradiva (pesmi) in ojačitev glasú z možnostmi repeticij, popravkov ter analize. 22 Empatičnost, tj. vživljanje v lastna čustva ter čustva ciljnih poslušalcev, in eidetika sta važni načeli ustvarjalcev tako glasbe kot besedil. 23 Najboljše besedilo in interpretacijo le-tega festival Slovenska popevka vrednoti in nagrajuje. 24 V glasbeni praksi uporabljamo poimenovanji: glasbeno besedilo ali»tekst«, z izjemo opernega libreta. 25 Število domačih avtorjev in imetnikov pravic l (SAZAS) znaša 6.009, tujih 2 milijona in pol. 150

151 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... Besedila pétih pesmi imajo povprečno strukturo: dve kitici, refren 26, ponovljena kitica in refren 27. V veliki meri se pozornost in pomnjenje osredinjata na refren, ki je kulminacija péte glasbeno-besedilne kompozicije. Popevke lahko imajo atipičen refren ali namesto njega inštrumentalni del, refrena sploh nimajo, velikokrat imajo le t. i. razvito kitico. Glede na skrb za prestižnost pravorečne norme slovenskega knjižnega jezika in stremljenje h kakovosti in poetološkosti pétih besedil, ki so jih v zlati dobi Slovenske popevke ( ) pisali kakovostni domači pesniki, 28 je prav literarno-glasbena vrsta popevka najprimernejše raziskovalno gradivo za sledeče fonetične meritve pétih besedil. Besedila popevk so glasbi imanentna, za razliko od neuglasbene poezije niso namenjena branju ali govornemu interpretiranju (recitaciji, deklamaciji). Martin Luter je učil, da stori glasba 29 besedo 30 bolj razumljivo 31.»Pesniški jezik mora takoj zbuditi živo in polno predstavo, vtisa ni mogoče niti preverjati niti popravljati.«32»besedna umetnina se bralcu razodeva kot nerazdružnost zvoka in smisla, ritma in simbolike, čustva, ideje in kompozicije. Eno podpira drugo, eno se z drugim spopolnjuje in v bralcu, če je le delo v teh svojih sestavinah skladno, zapušča občutek estetskega zadoščenja.« Pravorečje popularnih pétih besedil»ko govorimo o pravilnosti in čistosti knjižne slovenščine, mislimo navadno na pisani ali tiskani jezik. Od tod tudi izraz knjižni jezik. Pri tem pogosto pozabljamo, da je jezik najprej tisto, kar govorimo in slišimo, in šele potem tisto, kar pišemo, da je prvotnejša govorjena in ne pisana beseda, pisava je le zelo nepopoln zapis govora. Potemtakem ne more biti važno samo, kako pišemo, marveč tudi, kako govorimo. Pravorečje (ortoepija) določa pravilno in enotno izreko glasov in glasovnih skupin, besed in besednih skupin; hkrati opozarja na napake in daje navodila, kako se jih obvarujemo«34, je zapisal avtor prve samostojne knjižice Slovensko pravorečje (1946) in raziskovalec kulture slovenske reformacije Mirko Rupel. Petje se na segmentni fonetični ravni ne razlikuje bistveno od govora (péta beseda se je razvila iz prvotno govorjene), večje razlike nastajajo le na nadsegmentni ravni glasovja (trajanje, jakost, ton, ritem, premor, barva, agogika, dinamika). Učitelji petja in pevske tehnike se sklicujejo na znano pev- 26 Refren je večkrat ponovljeni, v besedilu in glasbi enak pripev, pogosto v drugačni izvajalski zasedbi kot prejšnje kitice (kitice: solisti; refren: zbor), posebej v pesmih in plesih; v inštrumentalni glasbi refrenu ustreza glavna tema v rondoju. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, V drugo z morebitno tonsko modulacijo navzgor. 28 E. Budau, D. Velkaverh (le popevke), G. Strniša, F. Milčinski - Ježek, C. Zlobec, S. Makarovič, E. Fritz, M. Košuta, B. Šömen, F. Souvan, M. Jesih idr. Gl. v Frantar, Enkrat še zapoj. 29 Znano je, da je lahko glasba z zvočno frekvenčno urejenostjo, metro-ritmičnimi zakonitostmi in foničnostjo, sredstvo za odpravljanje vrste težav s področja medicine: zdravljenje z zvoki, odpravljanje govornih in raznih drugih težav v surdopedagogiki, logopediji in govorni terapiji (afazične motnje) ipd. 30 Nanaša se na božjo. 31 Primož Trubar, Eni psalmi. (Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 1567), Matjaž Kmecl, Mala literarna teorija (Ljubljana: Založba M & N, 1996), Jože Toporišič, Besedni umetnik in družbena vloga književnosti (Ljubljana: 1976), Mirko Rupel, Slovensko pravorečje (Ljubljana: DZS, 1964),

152 sko pravilo»poj, kot da govoriš«35, kar kaže na opiranje péte besede na poznavanje pravorečne govorne norme slovenskega knjižnega jezika.»dober izgovor (dikcija) dodaja barvo, energijo, priteguje pozornost ter krepi legato (vezano) petje.«36 Dikcija (izreka) v petju upošteva pravorečno akustično produktivno-perceptivno kakovost glasu (fonema), izhajajočo iz fonetično-fonološke jezikovne standardizirane norme, pri čemer zares pôjemo le samoglasnike (pri vsakem je nujno brezhibno odpirati usta). Soglasnike izrekamo kratko, s predvsem intelektualno vlogo semantično razmejujejo besedilo, povezujejo samoglasnike, ki opravljajo čustveno (estetsko) vlogo. Kakovostna dikcija pétih samoglasnikov upošteva standardno jezikovno-normativno barvno (formantno) razlikovalnost samoglasnikov, stabilno intoniranost (konsonančnost), zvenečnost in estetsko umerjeno resonančno ravnotežje s svetljenjem/temnjenjem 37 (chiaroscuro). Slovenski samoglasniki so pévsko izvede ni v temperirani uglasitvi (na osnovi terc, kot akordi), medtem ko govorjeni v naravni uglasitvi govornega aparata (višji srednji nižji register), na podlagi tega se glasovne»pevske lege razvrščajo v 1) sopran, 2) alt, 3) tenor 4) bas in različice: mezzosopran, kontraalt, bariton in basbariton. Oznake kot dramatski sopran, lirični tenor ali junaški bariton poimenujejo značaj glasu, njegovo zvočnost in uporabljivost v glasbeni praksi.« Pravorečna odstopanja V petju se je še posebej v preteklih dvajsetih letih pri nas v popularni glasbi uveljavila zahodna tehnika petja v pulznem registru (ang. vocal fry ali glotal fry, slov. škripajoči glas), ki zajema najnižje frekvence normalnega govora (20 60 Hz), pevci pa se zavestno odločajo za stisnjeno, zadihano ali tekočo 39 fonacijo glede na žanr popevke, posebej mladi posnemajo interpretacijo svojih idolov, največkrat tujih popularnih pevcev. Barva glasu po naravi izraža spol, osebnost in identiteto vsakega posameznega pevca, njegove kulture in naroda. Tako popularni pevci med najbolj predvajanimi glede na lestvice IPF-a in SAZAS-a pôjejo s stisnjeno 41 fonacijo, npr. pevke s tehniko pootročenega petja, nazalnega, pri čemer se deloma spreminja fonetična (pravorečna) podoba besed / sto glasov v meni pôjée / / zazibaš v sanje svôjée: /; ožajo izglasne samoglasnike / malo fantazijée / / malo čarovnijée /; / naj sijé v očeh /. Moški 35 Ivo Lhotka - Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja. Priručnik za nastavnike, studente i učenike solo-pjevanja, zborovođe i sve one koje zanimaju problemi pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1975), Oren Brown, Discover Your Voice: How to Develop Healthy Voice Habits (London: Singular publishing group, 1996), V slušni fonetiki so svetli fonemi visokoformantni: i, e in zobniki; temni so nizkoformantni u, ozki o in ustničniki za razliko od glasbe, kjer velja dur: svetel in mol: temen. 38 Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, Irena Hočevar-Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora. (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008), Zavod IPF je bil ustanovljen l. 1997, trenutno šteje Skupščina izvajalcev 2025 članov in 239 proizvajalcev fonogramov. Med najpopularnejšimi sodeč po lestvicah IPF v minulih petih letih so bili izvajalci: J. Plestenjak, Alya, Modrijani, N. Zorjan, Bilbi, E. Boto, D. Malalan, Muff, Kataya, Neisha, Tabu, N. Pušlar, Ditka, G. Gjurin, R. Bučar, Pliš, T. Kovač, April, Dan D, A. Godec, M. Rudan, Kataya, Victory, Magnifico, V. Kreslin, Siddharta, Nude idr. Gl. v Gregor Štibernik (ur.), Zbornik prispevkov mednarodnega strokovnega simpozija ob 10-letnici zbiranja nadomestil za sorodne glasbene pravice v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: IPF, 2014). 41 Primer petja s stisnjeno fonacijo v stilu angloameriškega načina pop petja je zmagovalna skladba EME 2015 (Maraaya), v kateri je barva glasu izrazito popačena z intencionalno zavestno spreminjano obliko (artikulacijsko odločilne) oblike odzvočne cevi. Postavlja se vprašanje identitete mlajših pevcev, glede na tujo, privzeto barvo glasu. 152

153 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... pôjejo v nadsegmentih približano govoru, z manjšimi odkloni od naravnega (modalnega) registra in metroritmičnih idr. nadsegmentnih značilnosti govora, neizrazite artikulacije, vendar pravorečno ustrezne / v moji knjigi obrazov mi tvoj najlepši je /. Pri določenih pevcih je slušnozaznavno menjava registra v tretji register (pevskotehnično nezaželeno) in sredinsko, ne frontalno petje z omisijo / *etulji grejo v nebo / / da nas *majo radi /). V ženskih in moških pétih glasovih ima pomembno vlogo uzvočevanje čustev (s šepetanjem, mrmranjem, kričanjem ipd.), pogosto pomembnejšo kot pravorečje. Moški pevci npr. pôjejo ravnodušno neizrazito (mačističnost), medtem ko je v večini popularnih pétih glasov prisoten glotalni pulzni register, ki poudarja element očarljivosti (zapeljivost). Čutnost/senzualnost s preveč izdihanega zraka zmanjša jakost in razpoznavnost glasov, kar ob poslušanju pesmi zbuja željo po podnapisih. Inštrumentalni del skladbe pevci na določenih mestih interpretativno zapolnijo z interpolacijo zvenečih glasov (ie, ia, jee, uu, mmm ). Praviloma nenaglašene enklitike/proklitike postanejo naglašene, neustreznost ritma besed ritmu skladbe (neupoštevanje poudarjenih/nepoudarjenih metroritmičnih zakonitosti) pa lahko vodi v kršenje pravorečne norme pétega jezika: [vodá], zaljubljen[á], /zg[ô]r[á]j/. Tako je npr. péti kratki nenaglašeni /e/ v [celó] po trajanju in kakovosti blizu širokemu dolgemu /e / v govoru, kot npr. [se lo]. Podobno je s pétim kratkim nenaglašenim in govorjenim širokim dolgim /o/ [polétna noč : zapôje]. Zaradi pomanjkanja jezikovne cenzure so v slovenskih pétih besedilih slušnozaznavne napake: 1) Primer pleonazma / k tebi vleče moje me srce / 2) Napaka v skladnji (vezavi) / da ne pozabim jo /, / tisoč ljubic mi ne pogasi nemirno kri / 3) Vrinjen členek zaradi metričnega izida / prosil bom zate le / 4) Omisija oz. neslišna izgovorjava določenih konzonantov, posebej nezvenečih [poraz - *oraz] 5) Redukcija vokalov [jst rabm] 6) Fonetična napaka glede na normo v SSKJ (j/á/z ali j/ә/z) namesto /jàz], / nikôli ni tišina tako naglas zapela /, / sámo ti /; deikt postane pravorečno napačno polglasniško izrazit [təm] ali postane /a/ dolg [tám] namesto kratek [tàm]. Pravorečno vprašljiv je kratko naglašen péti samoglasnik /a/ na poudarjeni dobi ali v izglasju / [čɘs] čàs bo na moji strani / /moj si zràk [zrɘk]/, ki se preglasi v dolgi fonem /ɘ/ ali pa pevec spremeni kračino, namesto [tə], v dolžino / brez nje bo življenje moje v [te mo] šlo /.»Polglasnik je ne svetel, ne temen, ne strnjen glas«42, za petje premalo izrazit samoglasnik, s premalo koncentracijo zvočne energije. V popularnih pétih besedilih so slušnozaznavni: pogovorni péti jezik / tok sm pucala / ali narečno neknjižno naglaševanje glede na regionalno pripadnost pevca, napake bolezenskega izvora (npr. nosljanje, sigmatizem, hripavost 43 ) in nepoznavanje izgovorne knjižne norme slovenskega jezika in fonetične ustreznosti (nepoznavanje naglasnega mesta, ozkih/širokih in dolgih/kratkih samoglasnikov). Drsna aproksimanta /v/, /j/, nosna /m/, /n/ so nasploh pri petju (predvsem džez) dolgo trajajoči soglasniki (primerljivo s samoglasniki) glede na govorjene, kar je (žanrska) specifika péte besede / jaz pa čaka[m] / / ker ga ljubi[m] / / drugačen kot pre[j] / in vplivajo na barvo (timbre) pétega samoglasnika, pred/za katerim stojijo. 42 Jože Toporišič, Slovenska slovnica (Ljubljana: Založba Obzorja, 2000), lahko pogojena s kajenjem in dejavniki slabe nege glasu, ki je prisotna v splošni popularni, neklasični glasbi 153

154 4 Med govorno in pevsko interpretacijo Slušno podobo jezika človek usvoji pred pisno besedo in branjem;»povezovanje grafemov in fonemov je naravni proces, ki se mu ni mogoče izogniti že ob prvem učenju branja 44 «. Govorni izraz je naraven in živ, pisni umeten in neživ. Govor je po besedah Iva Škarića»informacijsko-komunikacijski arhetip in pragmatično komunikacijsko sredstvo, ki je obstajal pred pisavo, obstaja ob njej in neodvisno od nje«, 45 petje pa po razlagi I. L. Kalinski»idealiziran govor«46. Miller znano pevsko pedagoško pravilo Si canta come si parla omeji na v veliki meri fonetično predpostavko in dopolni:»pri petju gre za glasovno resonančno balansiranje, ki presega vsakršno govorjeno besedo, tudi umetniško, npr. profesionalnega teatra«. 47 Kakovostna pevska (umetniška) izvedba je nedeljeno povezana z interpretacijo 48, tj. prestavitvijo glasbenega teksta 49 v živo glasbo ali literarnega teksta v živi jezik (péto besedilo) na način, da se najbolj doživeto dojameta, spoznata njegov pomen in vsebina. Katarina Podbevšek ločuje faze priprave na kakovostno umetniško interpretacijo literarnega besedila tihega glasnega branja 50 : 1) upočasnjeno tiho branje 2) izdelava govornega zapisa in 3) poskusno glasno branje. Omenjeno je dober primer kakovostne priprave tako na govorno interpretacijo kakor tudi pevsko interpretacijo literarnega besedila. Škarić 51 deli interpretativno branje na navadno glasno branje, spikersko branje, interpretativno branje in dobro interpretativno branje. Dobro interpretativno branje v umetniški praksi je fonetičnofonološko 52 najboljši približek govorjene umetniške besede péti. Govorna interpretacija besedila dopušča interpretu več»licentie poetice«predvsem na nadsegmentni ravni (trajanje, poudarek, ton, ritem, premor, barva, agogika, dinamika), medtem ko je pevska interpretacija deloma že predvidena,»omejena«s paradigmatično partituro in dopušča le manjše metro-ritmične oz. melodične odklone od s kompozicijo določene glasbene norme. Pevska interpretacija se spreminja npr. od arije do recitativa (dvojica z nasprotnim izraznim značajem) v smeri od pevske proti govorni recitativ je silabično izrazit način monotonega petja, ki posnema ritem, poudarek in melodijo govora. Po značaju je na sredi med njima samostojna vokalna skladba izrazite melodike arioso, katere izvedba je natanko vezana na takt. Za šolane klasične pevce predstavlja enega najzahtevnejših koncertov recital, samostojni nastop glasbenega solista ob in- 44 David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language: second edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Šola retorike, 2005), Ivo Lhotka - Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja: Priručnik za nastavnike, studente i učenike solo-pjevanja, zborovođe i sve one koje zanimaju problemi pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga,1975), Richard Miller, On the Art of singing (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), Gre za način uzvočitve Kako? in je nasprotje improvizacije (impromptu), v pomenu brez vnaprejšnje priprave. O improvizaciji govorimo v jazzovski pevski tehniki scat, izvajanju izbrane poljubne kombinacije semantično nepovezanih fonemov, zlogov, ki se pevsko subjektivno razvijajo v ritmu. 49 tabulature, generalbas, part, partiture 50 Katarina Podbevšek, Govorna interpretacija literarnih besedil v pedagoški in umetniški praksi (Ljubljana: Slavistično društvo Slovenije, 2006), Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Pravljično gledališče, 1996), »Govorimo, da bi nas slišali; slišali zato, da bi nas razumeli. To je pot od fonacijskega dejanja k zvoku kot takemu in od zvoka k smislu! Tu zapuščamo področje fonetike, discipline, ki proučuje zgolj motorični in akustični vidik glasov, in stopamo na novo področje, področje fonologije, ki proučuje jezikovni vidik glasov govorice.«roman Jakobson, Lingvistični in drugi spisi (Ljubljana: Založba ŠKUC, Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete: 1989),

155 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... štrumentu: tovrstno petje namreč zahteva ne le visoke fizične pripravljenosti temveč tudi skrajno psihološko zbranost (poznavanje količine besedila na pamet in glasovni napor). Gledališka igra, katere besedilo se govori ob spremljavi glasbe, melodrama, se nahaja na sredi med glasbenim in literarnim delom in združuje (tako kot opera/opereta, muzikal) vrste umetnosti: dramsko, literarno in glasbeno (plesno). Glasbena drama (nem. Musikdrama) je oznaka za opero v smislu celostne umetnine, enovitosti besedila in glasbe : nasprotje muzikalni drami, kjer je glasba le intermezzo. Ob koncu 18. st. razvit samospev (A. T. Linhart, D. Jenko, B. Ipavec, J. Flajšman, A. Nedved, A. Foerster, F. Gerbič idr.) skladba za pevski glas in solistični inštrument je pri nas priljubljen posebej v obliki literarno-glasbene komunikacije prekomponiranega samospeva. 4.1 Pevska interpretacija Klasična vokalna pevska tehnika belkanto je podstat današnjemu lepemu petju in pomeni preprost ter speven vokalni stil brez virtuoznega okrasja. Glasbeno šolstvo pri nas vzgaja in izobražuje pevce za klasično petje resne glasbe in jazz petje programi popularnih modernih glasbenih zvrsti ostajajo neformalna panoga zasebnih šol. Vsaka glasbena zvrst implicira svojevrstno pevsko tehniko glede na artikulacijsko fonetično spremenjenost odzvočnih mest in postavitev artikulatorjev tako se petje operne arije razlikuje od petja popevke ali petje klasične popevke od jazz petja predvsem v barvi (timbru) glasu. Obstajajo vrste petja, ki ne vzbujajo večjega tonskega odmika od naravnega (modalnega) registra, v katerem govorimo 53, in spet na drugi strani vrste petja, ki zahtevajo najzahtevnejšo agilnost glasu in telesni napor, obvladljiva le z dolgotrajnim šolanjem glasu. Pevci zborist, operni pevec in popevkar pojejo z različno glasovno barvo, dinamiko (pevci pojejo večinoma piano, forte, medtem ko le operni pevci profesionalno fortissimo possibile). Prehajanje med različnimi glasbenimi zvrstmi je redko, operni pevec z izdelano tehniko estetskega petja belkanto 54 redko zaživi v množični popularni glasbi ali pop pevec v klasični tehniki petja. Tako je npr. v zborovskem petju lahko moteč operni (pevskoformantni) glas, ki se ne zliva v zborovsko barvo in s svojimi formantnimi vrhovi (ang. peaks) kazi estetsko doživljanje barve celotnega zbora.»najodličnejša dikcija se je razvila v petju, v katerem je vsebina besedila nosila velik pomen, prim. francoski šansoni. V belkantu morajo biti samoglasniki čisti, ne smejo privzeti neželene nosne barve, tudi ko bi v govoru morali biti zaradi fonoloških razlogov nosni.«55 Pevska tehnika izvorno temelji na dihu in uravnavanju aerodinamičnih sil v telesu med petjem. V skrbi za péti slovenski knjižni jezik ne moremo preskočiti pevčevega poznavanja in uporabe pevske tehnike: poznavanja lastnih resonančnih odzvočnih mest telesa, zmožnosti hkratne pozornosti pri metroritmičnem, melodičnem, harmonskem, 53 Parlando je hitremu naravnemu govoru podoben način petja, ki se je razvil zlasti v operi buffi v 18. in 19. stol. 54 Prediren glas klasične pevske tehnike belkanto ni izvedljiv (dosegljiv) nešolanemu pevcu brez dolgotrajnega usvajanja klasične pevske tehnike in zahteva največjo mero fizičnega napora ter produktivno-perceptivnega nadzora psihofizične uporabe odzvočnih makro- in mikroprostorov (predvsem v najvišjem»tretjem«registru glave). 55 Gordana Varošanec - Škarić, Timbar (Zagreb: FF Press, 2005),

156 besedilnem poteku skladbe in dikciji, temelječi na pravorečju besedilnega dela skladbe (izhodiščne gôvorne norme) ob upoštevanju izvajalnih označb 56 skladateljskega dela kompozicije (artikulacijske, dinamične, agogične, izraznostne in izrazi za tempo). Pevec deluje glasovno produktivno-receptivno (po zakonu kroženja) s pomočjo sluha, s katerim uravnava intra- in ekstrazvočno gibanje na mikro in makro ravni, pri čemer zasleduje glavni cilj, tj. estetiko in evfonijo pétega glasu in besedila, v objetju inštrumentalnega cilj je dosegljiv le s priučeno kakovostno»vokalno tehniko«, ki je ključni gonilnik dobre pevske interpretacije. 4.2 Fiziologija glasu Dihanje je z ustvarjanjem subglotisnega zračnega tlaka osnova tako govoru kot petju, a petje v primerjavi z govorom porabi več zraka 57. Pri petju navzgor pevec uporablja v glavnem trebušno dihanje 58, pri petju navzdol pa prsno. Šolani pevci pri petju uporabijo % vitalne kapacitete 59 za fonacijo, šolane pevke pa %. Dihalna opora 60 (it. appoggio, nem. Stütze) podpira glas in mu omogoča dovolj dolg izdih za petje, medtem ko prepona glas balansira 61. Vzglasni frazni (besedni, silabični) samoglasniki imajo skupne lastnosti: fonacija sledi vdihu, ko je appoggio največji oz. je v pljučih največja količina vdihanega zraka, ki postopoma upada v smeri začetek konec fraze. Izglasnim samoglasnikom je velikokrat inherentno podaljšano trajanje, navzočnost vibrata. Pri izurjenih pevcih je daljše pridržanje čvrste pevske opore (zračnega stebra) osnova kakovostnega petja, ki neposredno in pomembno vpliva na pevsko artikulacijo (dikcijo). Najpomembnejši pri petju so resonančni organi: žrelo 62, nosna votlina, nosno-žrelna votlina, negibljivo trdo nebo (od zgornje čeljusti do mehkega neba), gibljivo mehko nebo (višanje in nižanje tona), nos, sinusi (zatilniški, lobanjski, ušesna, lična, očesna, čelna). Od odzvočnosti telesnih resonančnih organov je odvisna produktivno-perceptivna kakovost péte besede. Oblika zvočne cevi je odvisna od pozicije grla 63 (od glasilk) do ustnic. Na barvo in jakost glasu vpliva vsaka sprememba prostora. Goltna ožina loči ustno votlino od žrela, nje oblika 64 pa je pomembna za petje, posebej za odpiranje registra glave in ustvarjanja višjih tonov. Grlo (larynx) predstavlja s podjezično kostjo 56 Izrazi, kratice in znamenja, ki podrobno določajo, kako izvajamo skladbo (npr. non legato, glissando ; p, f, ff, cresc. ; andante, adagio, allegro ; accelerando, ritenuto ; affettuoso, appassionato, audace ). 57 Med fonacijo je izdih močno podaljšan, postane tudi dvajsetkrat daljši od vdiha. / / Govorec uporablja za govor tudi ekspiratorni rezervni volumen. Tok zraka iz pljuč v izdihu skozi grlo je pomemben tudi za prozodijo. Irena Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008), Napake fonatornega dihanja (organske in funkcionalne: npr. površno dihanje, preglobok vdih, ki povzroči glasovno utrudljivost) lahko vplivajo tudi na kakovost glasu. Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Vitalna kapaciteta predstavlja volumen, ki ga maksimalno izdihnemo po maksimalnem vdihu. Odvisna je od starosti, spola, višine, konstitucije, teže in zdravstvenega stanja posameznika. Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, prsna ali trebušna 61 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Žrelo je cev, ki poteka od baze lobanje navzdol, do višine 6. vratnega vretenca. 63 Grlo mora biti pri petju karseda spuščeno. 64 Šolani pevci ustvarjajo obliko t. i. zehanja med samim petjem zaradi doseganja odličnejše resonance. 156

157 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... funkcionalno enoto, sestavljajo ga subglotis, glotis (glasotvorni organ) in supraglotis 65. Sluh, globoka in povrhnja senzibiliteta iz grla služijo na nivoju centralnega živčnega sistema za kontrolo izvedbe načrtovane fonacije, tako da se motorični program izvedbe fonacije vsak trenutek sproti popravlja na želeno raven:»sluh je najpomembnejši kontrolni mehanizem pri govoru in petju. Nekateri pevci uspejo s treningom ojačiti tudi sistem kontrolne fonacije / /, kar je pomembno, kadar govorijo oziroma pojejo v hrupu oz. ob močni inštrumentalni spremljavi in se sami ne slišijo« Kakovost pétih samoglasnikov in prozodija»samoglasniki učinkujejo na sluh mnogo bolj blagoglasno kot konzonanti. Ker ima zračni tok prosto pot, zvene tudi bolj polno.«67 Konzonanti v petju služijo povezovanju samoglasnikov, biti morajo kratki in nevsiljivi. Pevec pogosto spreminja trajanje samoglasnika ali višino tona (dvakrat, trikrat) znotraj istega samoglasnika; z glasbenim okraševanjem 68 in vibratom 69 lahko spreminja še dinamiko (messa di voce, tremolo). Perturbacija (spreminjanje) višine glasu znotraj pétega samoglasnika se imenuje jitter, perturbacija amplitude pa shimmer. Oba parametra, izražena v %, European Laryngological Society svetuje za akustično oceno fonacije 70.»Fonetična znanost 71 je v zadnjih petdesetih letih z možnostmi instrumentalnih meritev formantov, tj. koncentracije zvočne energije, izrazite zlasti pri samoglasnikih in zvenečih glasovih, dokazala, da zmore natančno analizirati in določiti kakovost posameznih fonemov (v Hz).«Estetika živahnega pevskega tonskega gibanja v času in prostoru presega moč in učinek govorjene besede, predvsem v nadsegmentih (trajanje, jakost, ton, barva, ritem, agogika, dinamika) merodajnih fonemov samoglasnikov, ki so pri petju izrazitejši in poleg formantne strukture omogočajo še natančne meritve alikvotnih tonov oz. višjih harmonikov 72 samoglasnikov, ki skupaj pomembno 65 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, France Bezlaj, Oris slovenskega knjižnega izgovora (Ljubljana: Znanstveno društvo, 1939), Okraševanje (ornamentika) se nanaša na okraševanje melodije ali manjkrat harmonične linije stoletja je bila umetnost okraševanja v zenitu oz. smatrana za pomembno virtuozno tehniko. Variirajo celotni deli skladbe ali samo prehodi (pasaže). Razširjeni sta dve vrsti okraševanja: preprosto tonsko obigravanje posameznega tona (ang. graces) ali bolj ekstravagantno okraševanje vseh prehodov, ki originalno melodijo povsem prikrije. Gl. v Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms, 132. Trilček (ang. trill, it. trillo) je pogost melodični okrasek iz hitre menjave glavnega tona z zgornjim sosednjim tonom ali poltonom ( v Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms, 193); v klasični glasbi notiran, v zabavni pa spontan ali nameren del interpretacije/improvizacije, navadno glavnega pevca, manjkrat bekvokalov. 69 Vibrato je pojav kvantitativno obsežnejših samoglasnikov; gre za lahno nihanje višine tona glasu, ki nastane, ko pevec z dihom dolgotrajno podpira ton določene višine. Vibrato je naravni pojav človeškega glasu, do katerega prihaja zaradi ne zavestnih korekcij, ki jih pevec vrši, da bi obdržal ton na zadani višini, kadar ta dolgo traja; te korekcije se odvijajo v desetinki sekunde. Gl. v Lhotka Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja, 65. Dolgi toni brez vibrata (komaj zaznavnega tonskega nihanja gor : dol) zvenijo neprijetno, če je pa tega preveč, se pretvori v tremolo, pevsko nezaželen izrazito tresoč glas, t. i. napako v pevski tehniki. 70 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language: second edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), Alikvotni toni se hkrati z osnovnim oglašajo vsi ali pa se jih oglaša le del. Število nihajev a. t. je mnogokratnik števila nihajev osnovnega tona (Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 14), medtem ko alikvotna tehnika petja zavestno ojači določene alikvotne tone v spektru posameznega pétega glasu (samoglasnika). 157

158 vplivajo na spremembo barve glasu in na kakovost dikcije 73.»Intervali 74 si med harmoniki 1 6 sledijo: 1 in 2 (oktava), 2 in 3 (kvinta), 3 in 4 (kvarta), 4 in 5 (velika terca), 5 in 6 (mala terca). Ko je F0 nižja kot 100 Hz, so sosednji pari harmonikov manj razmaknjeni kot znaša kritična frekvenčna razdalja, vsi lahko posledično prispevajo k raskavosti (angl. roughness). Ko je F0 višja, k raskavosti/hrapavosti prispevajo le tisti harmoniki, ki so pod mejo 20 % frekvence F0, ali če se izrazimo z glasbenim intervalom, male terce. Intervali, ki ločujejo sosednje harmonike, se bližajo tem bolj, višje kot se pomikamo v spektru. Če na primer presojamo frekvenčno območje, skupno altom 75 in tenorjem ( Hz), ugotovimo, da tvorijo raskavost le sosednji harmoniki nad četrtim. Sundberg 76 vprašujoč Kaj je tako posebnega pri petju, pri pevcih? izhaja iz dihanja, fonacije in artikulacije, treh determinant petja. Ugotavlja, da glede na navedeno troje obstaja razlika v več pogledih med pevci in»ne pevci«. Vsem pevcem je skupno izhajanje iz estetske vrednosti in zasledovanje le-te. Pevci morajo po njegovo razviti neodvisno kontrolo parametrov glasu: kontrolo jakosti in tona (t. i. pitch ). Za govorca to ni značilno. Pevec mora najnatančneje odmeriti in ustvariti subglotisni pritisk vsled produkcije želene intonacije. Subglotisni pritisk konstantno narašča z naraščanjem višine tona. V normalnem govoru je jakost glasú povezana s spremembo osnovne frekvence 77. Nešolani pevec je prepoznaven po stisnjeni fonaciji, predvsem ob naraščajoči jakosti, na drugi strani šolani pevec manj menjuje način fonacije med spreminjanjem jakosti petja in razvije večjo neodvisnost med tonom in jakostjo. Sprememba enega parametra za kakovostnega pevca ne pomeni nujno spremembe drugega. 5.1 Formanti Formanti so v muzikološki terminologiji»naziv za alikvotne tone, ki od ostalih alikvotnih tonov odstopajo s svojo intenziteto oz. povečano amplitudo, kar daje zvoku barvo. Vsak glas ima svojo karakteristično barvo, odvisno od števila, razporejenosti in intenzitete posameznih formantov. Pri petju obstaja stalno frekvenčno področje (nem. Frequenzbereich), za vsak določen samoglasnik drugače, znotraj katerega se formanti pojavljajo, neglede na spremembo osnovne frekvence F0.«78 Temeljni grlni ton (F0) temeljna frekvenca nastane v grlu, število nihajev glasilk v sekundi določa višino F0, barva glasu (timbre) ter značilnosti posameznih glasov nastanejo v odzvočni cevi nad grlom in s pomočjo artikulatorjev 79. Človeški govorni aparat 80 oblikuje samoglasniške glasove, ki jih opredelimo s 4 ali 5 pomembnimi formanti. Višji kot je ton (pitch), nižja je vrednost prvega formanta (F1). Samoglasnika /i/ in /u/ imata torej nižja prva 73 Hočevar Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), Ne obstaja zmeraj razlika v osnovni frekvenci med petjem moškega in ženske, vendar je razlika v barvi (timbre) precejšnja: tenorji pojejo npr. v zgornjem delu lastnega razpona, alti v nižjem delu svojega pevskega razpona. 76 Johan Sundberg»What s so special about singers?«journal of Voice. Vol.4, No.2, 1990: Povprečno razmerje v govoru je pribl. 0,4 poltona na en decibel (db). Podvojitev subglotisnega pritiska poveča jakost za pribl. 9 decibelov (db). Hočevar Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Kovačević, Krešimir (gl. ur.), Muzička encikopedija I (Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1971), Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, Basi imajo najdaljši vokalni trakt in soprani najkrajšega. 158

159 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... formanta, medtem ko /a/ višjega. Drugi formant, F2, kaže na sprednjost (odzvočno mesto) glasu. Odzadnji samoglasniki (glede na odzvočnost) imajo frekvenčno nizek F2, sprednji pa visok F2, prav tako ima pri F2 (o in u)»oblikovanost ustnic pomembno vlogo 81.«Resonančno in artikulatorno odprti glasovi z F1 prisilijo dvig frekvence F2 in tako lahko z izračunavanjem razlike med F1 in F2 ugotavljamo»(ne)sprednjost«artikulacije samoglasnika. Zaokroževanje glasu vpliva na razmerje med F2 in F3 in krepi odzvočno mesto samoglasnika zadaj: nezaokroženi samoglasniki imajo sprednji, zaokroženi pa zadnji F3.»Formant 82 si je treba predstavljati ne kot tanko črto, temveč kot pas, ki obsega povprečno okrog 500 Hz (ožji je rad le F1, dobijo pa se tudi širši od 500 Hz).«Značilna prva dva formanta M. Vujnović 83 deli na faringealne (žrelne) formante (F1), nastale z resonanco v grlni votlini in bukalne (F2), nastale v nosni/ustni votlini. F2 je samoglasniško kakovostno najbolj razlikovalen, zmeraj v odnosu do sosednjih formantov. Porazdelitev formantnih območij, spektralno različnih, ostaja pri govoru in petju v posameznih fonemih enako razdeljeno. Po Fletcherju sprememba višine tona naj ne bi spremenila mest omenjenih maksimalnih komponent 84. Formantna področja so pri ženskah malo, pri otrocih bolj, pomaknjena proti višjim frekvencam v odnosu do formantov moških govorcev ali pevcev. Odnos med formanti, ne njihova absolutna vrednost, kaže na kakovost samoglasnika.»prvi formant se nahaja v območju Hz, drugi od Hz in tretji nad 2200 Hz. 85 «Višji formanti od F1 in F2 (od F3 naprej) so karakteristični bolj za določeno osebo kot za sam glas. Specifika péte besede pa je pevski formant, ki je potreben, da se šolanega pevca ali govornika sliši preko igranja orkestra ali petja zbora v samoglasniških spektrih govorcev in netreniranih pevcev je odsoten. Sundberg 86 opredeljuje pevskoformantno območje izhajajoč iz opernega petja: pevski formant predstavlja zlitje 3. in 4. formanta in se pojavlja na frekvenci 2300 Hz 3400 Hz, odvisno od višine glasu (pri basistu pri nižjih frekvencah, pri sopranistki pri višjih frekvencah). Samoglasniki se med seboj razlikujejo po barvi (timbre), tj. po svoji akustični sestavi.»v vsakem samoglasniku se pojavi dvojnost barve: barva vokala samega (samoglasniški timbre) in barva glasu govorečega. Barva samoglasnika je tipična, barva glasu pa individualna. Oba elementa se prepletata med seboj. Barva samoglasnika ima temeljno vrednost za govor.«87 Posebej pri večglasnem 88 petju popularne glasbe je značilno petje v tercah, sekstah, unisono, pri čemer je pomembna ustrezna kombinacija obojega. Po Sundbergu 89»vocal tract tuning«(formantna uglasitev oz. umerjanje) povečuje nivo zvočnega oddajanja predfonatorno pomaga pevcu izogniti se vokalnim 81 Tivadar Hotimir, Kakovost in trajanje samoglasnikov v govorjenem knjižnem jeziku (Ljubljana: doktorska disertacija 2008), Jože Toporišič, Glasovna in naglasna podoba slovenskega knjižnega jezika (Maribor: Obzorja, 1978), Momir Vujnović, Govorna akustika (Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada, 1990), Vujnović, Govorna akustika, Vujnović, Govorna akustika, Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, Bezlaj, Oris slovenskega knjižnega izgovora, Duet je priljubljena glasbena in besedilna oblika, besedilopisec upošteva kompozicijsko izdvajanje, dialoškost oz. skladatelj melodični dualizem, prilagojeno spolu pevcev in njuni pevski legi. Najbolj razširjena oblika dvoglasnega popularnega petja pri nas je petje v terci in z obrnjenim konsonančnim intervalom, petje v seksti. 89 Johan Sundberg, Filipa M. B. Lã and Brian P. Gill:»Formant Tuning Strategies in Professional Male Opera Singers«, Journal of voice, Vol. 27, No. 3 (2013):

160 hiperfunkcijam prehajanja med registri tako pri klasičnem in neklasičnem petju med sámo fonacijo.»pevci bi naj glede na svetovno (konfliktno) pevsko pedagogiko: (1) uglasili F1 in/ali F2 z delnim tonom harmonikom (2) vzdrževali F1 in F2 konstantna, neodvisno od F0 in (3) uglasili F1/F2 s frekvenco tik nad najbližjim harmonikom, v izogib koincidenci harmonika in formanta.»klasično petje se razlikuje od ne klasičnega v konsistentnih in jasno sluhovno zaznavnih formantnih frekvencah, F1 in F2 pa se nagibata nižje pri klasičnem petju kot neklasičnem (razlika je posebej izražena pri visokih F0).«90 6 Opis gradiva Za izvedbo fonetičnih instrumentalnih meritev je bilo treba posneti reprezentativno in kakovostno pevsko-inštrumentalno gradivo, primerno za fonetično-fonološke raziskave kakovosti pétih samoglasnikov. Gradivo je bilo posneto v obdobju v glasbenem studiu (Ljubljana), snemanje pevcev (m in ž) je bilo izvedeno na mikrofon Rode NT (studio condenser microphone), glasbena podlaga je bila predvajana preko slušalk AKG K270 studio (75 ohm); petje je bilo snemano z resolucijo 24 bit in 4800 khz (daw-digital audio workstation): logic 9, version v računalniško programsko okolje Apple Macintosh 92. Snemanje je potekalo opiraje se na zapisano (natisnjeno) besedilo znotraj največ treh poizkusnih snemanj, za nadaljnje analize pa je bil izbran pravorečno-pevsko najboljši posnetek (izvedba) po dogovoru pevca in producenta. Fonetična analiza posnetkov pétega besedila je bila opravljana s programoma Cool Edit Pro 2.1 in Praat. Opravljena je selektivna in primerjalna obdelava podatkov (samoglasnikov). Prvi zvočni posnetek (pevka): iz posavskega štajerskega narečja, 45 let, zmaga na Slovenski popevki, Emi ter visoka uvrstitev na tekmovanju Eurovision Song Contest. Drugi zvočni posnetek (pevec): 51 let, zmaga na slovenskem tekmovanju za Pesem Evrovizije, nastopanje na festivalu Slovenska popevka in prejem več nagrad (najboljša interpretacija, pop pesem leta). Oba pevca (m, ž) sta še pevsko aktivna in medijsko prepoznavna. Analizirani so bili samoglasniki zmagovalne slovenske popevke iz l Obliko besedila 94 tvorijo tri epske štirivrstičnice in lirski pripev (refren) v obliki apostrofirane kitice 95. Gre za reprezentativno popularno 96 popevko (glasbeno in besedilno poetološko) s stališča kakovosti glasbene kompozicije, besedila in kakovostne izreke (dikcije) 97. Kompozicija je baladna»(fr. ballade), ena od treh standardnih poetičnih oblik (kot rondo in virelai) ohranjena iz 14. in 15. stol., prvotno 90 Prav tam, Maximum SPL: 147 db (@ 1% THD into 1k ohm) 157 db (@ 1% THD into 1k ohm) with pad at maximum; Signal/Noise: 84 db (per IEC651,IEC268-15). Sensitivity: -36 db re 1 Volt/Pascal (16 94dB SPL) +/- 2 db. 92 MACBOOK PRO-Processor 2.5 ghz intel core i7,8gb,1333 mhz DDR3,500 gb SSD disk,15 inch. 93 Marjana Deržaj ( ) je pesem zapela z izbrano in skoraj mistično temno barvo glasu Deržajeva je nastopila na šestnajstih Popevkah izvedla 24 skladb, l prejela Zlato plaketo Slovenske popevke. 94 Uporabljena je oblika glasbenega besedila dodanega zvočnemu zapisu Za vse poletne noči Marjane Deržaj (1994). 95 V analizirani popevki razvita (razširjena) kitica nadomešča refren. 96 V letih v kategorijah 100 (Radijski programi RTV Slo) in 110 (komercialne in nekomercialne radijske postaje) v skupnem seštevku, je analizirana pesem na 3. mestu po pogostnosti predvajanj (Glasilo Avtor, letn. 6, št. 2 (2008): 13). 97 Petje je solistično, brez stranskih vokalov. 160

161 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA... plesna pesem«98, gre za žensko ljubezensko balado. Tekstopiska 99 je pisala besedilo na že obstoječo glasbeno predlogo skladatelja 100, zadnji (tako besedilni kot aranžerski popravki) pa so bili izvršeni združno (skladatelj pevec tekstopisec) z lektorjem, ki je skrbel za ustrezno knjižno pravorečje 101. Na sinhroni in diahroni ravni gre za reprezentativno popevko, upoštevaje predvajanost, številne (post)produkcije in številne pevske (po)izvedbe mlajših generacij pevcev (Alenka Godec, Nuša Derenda, Anika Horvat, Nina Strnad, Perpetuum Jazzile idr.). S stališča predvajanosti (aktualnosti) med občim slovenskim prebivalstvom pol stoletja permanentno prisotne popevke in s tem večjega jezikovnega vpliva na povprečnega slovenskega poslušalca (govorca slovenskega knjižnega jezika) smo izbrali neklasično (operno) petje za začetek raziskovanja pravorečja petja pri nas, saj ima popularna glasba s pétimi besedili velik in učinkovit vpliv na javno podobo knjižne slovenščine. V analizirani popevki je artikuliranih 213 pétih samoglasnikov (zlogov) odpetih v dvanajstosminskem taktu, hitrosti izvajanja M = 64. Kompozicija je v izvirniku zapisana v as-durovi 102 tonaliteti; moška izvedba je po transpoziciji péta v b-durovi, ženska v a-durovi tonaliteti: analizirana péta melodija se giblje v tonovskem načinu B (m) in A (ž). Diareza (razloka) je v konkretni pesmi najpogostejši premor (pavza) akatalektičnega jambskega heterosilabičnega verza in pétega besedila (melodije) nikjer ne prekinja cezura. Besedilo vključuje poetične prvine glasovnih (asonanca 103 ), besednih (iteracija 104, polisindeton 105 ) pesniških figur. V pétem besedilu, zlasti prve kitice, ustvarja temačno ozračje s»temnimi izglasnimi (nizkoformantnimi) samoglasniki: nerazpršen /o/, nestrnjen in temen (/ɔ/) ter razpršen in temen (gravisen) /u/«106 ob koncu glasbenih fraz ter simultanih finalnih verznih oksítonov. Primeri izglasnih temnih (baladnih) samoglasnikov: / bila je najin dom /; / nebroj za luč /; / ljubila se vso noč /; / in nasmeh in poljub /. Samoglasniki so glede na finalni silabični (iktični) položaj izdatnejši glede na trajanje (kolikost). Skladatelj je za ritem izbral triole te prav tako ustvarjajo baladno atmosfero znotraj enega takta štiri, s katerimi sovpada nealterirana melodija, nato še péta beseda (onomatopejska izbira fonemov zloga glasbene balade); struktura ritma (triol) je stopnjevana v 98 Latham, Dictionary of Musical Terms, Avtorica besedila Elza Budau, slovenska pesnica in pisateljica, je od l ena vodilnih tekstopiscev več kot tisoč zmagovalnih slovenskih popevk, večine pisanih na glasbo tako je besedila pisal tudi Dušan Velkaverh. 100 Skladatelj Mojmir Sepe je izbral glasovno (timbre) ustrezajočo izvajalko skladbe, altistko (povzeto iz pogovora s skladateljem), drugo uvrščeno zmagovalko prvega festivala Slovenska popevka, avtorjev C. Zlobca ter Slavka in Vilka Avsenika. 101 V zadnjem četrtletju 20. stol. se je poklic pevskega (studijskega) lektorja dokončno umaknil, sočasno s pluralizacijo medijev, samostojnega glasbenega podjetništva, pevcev in samostojno od RTVSLO neodvisno produkcijo. 102 As-dur je s štirimi nižaji temen akord, celotna pesem je izvorno péta s temnim zamolklim glasom (nefrontalna vokalizacija). 103 Notranja»akustična«rima / vsak zase zdaj / formantno strnjenega srednjega (nizkega) /a/ opravlja vlogo interference na sukcesivni osi, ponavljanje samoglasnika (ikta) iste kakovosti na nespremenjenem tonu, meritve pa kažejo, da ton pri petju (zraven podatka kje v frazi inicialni, medialni, finalni legi se /a/ nahaja) spreminja tudi kakovost petega samoglasnika, vrednosti F1 F Največkrat ponovljena sintagma, enaka naslovu popevke, besedilo začenja in končuje. V besedilu se ponovi še trikrat: na začetku prve in druge kitice, zadnjič pa v glasbeno in pevsko interpretativno najbolj dinamičnem zadnjem verzu/taktu (izvajanem cresc. in ff). Metroritmiko zadnjega takta spremeni upočasnjen tempo (diminuendo, ritard.), s čimer se podaljša trajanje (kvantiteta) tonov in emisija pétih samoglasnikov / za eno noč, poletno noč /. 105 Prim. / po pogled in nasmeh in poljub /. 106 Jože Toporišič, Slovenska slovnica (Ljubljana: Založba Obzorja, 2000),

162 smeri pesmi začetek konec glasbenega stavka in celotne kompozicije 107. Smer razvoja melodije vsebuje umirjeno tonsko sosledje, le mestoma večji intonančni preskok v obsegu oktave / vse ste-ne iz dreves / / samo na videz kdaj / (5., 25. takt) ambitus gradiva as des 2 je najprimernejši pevskemu glasu (legi) alt. Četrtinske pavze (mesta vdiha) v partituri niso povsod označene, saj sam potek melodije in legato členjena melodija (z ligaturami) umevno nakazujejo možna mesta vdiha ob koncu glasbene fraze. 7 Rezultati meritev pétih samoglasnikov Pesem od začetka do konca traja 186,03 sek., od tega je petja (fonacije) pri ženski 156,35 sek. in 29,68 sek. tišine (mesta za respiracijo oz. vdih), pri moškem je petja (fonacije) 147,74 sek., iz česar lahko sklepamo, da ženska pôje daljše samoglasnike kot moški, ki torej pôje staccato (non legato) glede na žensko. Petje oz. izgovarjanje (ž) zloga v povprečju znaša 734 ms oz. 1,35 zloga/sek. Moški pôje (izgovarja) en zlog povprečno 694 ms ali 1,44 zloga/sek. Fonacija pétih samoglasnikov traja dlje v primerjavi z govorjenimi 108, kar kaže na povečano zvočno emisijo in kvantiteto samoglasnikov. Zaradi sklepne glasbeno-inštrumentalne misli se zaključni samoglasnik /o/ v [nóč] izrazito podaljša 109 in traja osem dob 110 (dve z ligaturo povezani celinki) oz. ± 10 sek. Ženska pôje finalni ozek samoglasnik /o/ z F0 = 442,6 Hz (jitter: 0,333 %; shimmer: 1,600 %) na tonu a 1 z jakostjo 84,2 db (gl. sonagram spodaj); medtem ko moški z F0 = 232,7 Hz na tonu b (jitter: 0,341 %; shimmer: 1,597 %) in z jakostjo 79,35 db. 111 Slika 1: Sonagram finalnega ozkega /o/ (ženska). 107 Uporabi ritmično preoblikovane triole (četrtinske, osminske in šestnajstinske), s čimer doseže gradacijo misli. 108 Včasih je veljalo, da je normalna hitrost izgovarjanja (govorjenih besedil) 5 zlogov/sek. 109 Péti finalni samoglasnik /za eno noč, poletno n[ọ]č/, traja v obravnavanih posnetkih ±10 sek, kar je atipično za govorjene samoglasnike: ozek govorjeni fonem /o/ traja povprečno ms (gl. v Tivadar, doktorska disertacija). 110 Zadnji iktični izglasni /o/ traja pri pevcu 9,876 sek. in pevki 10,491 sek., to sta tudi kvantitativno izstopajoča péta samoglasnika analizirane popevke. 111 Zvišanje ravní zvoka za tri decibele pomeni podvojitev jakosti zvoka, vzrok je v zelo različnih vrednostih F 0 (ton). 162