UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko DIPLOMSKO DELO KAJA GULIČ

Transcription

1 UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko DIPLOMSKO DELO KAJA GULIČ Maribor, 2009

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3 UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko DIPLOMSKO DELO THE ANALYSIS OF ONE-ACT PLAYS BY GILLIAN PLOWMAN Mentorica: Doc. dr. Darja D. Hribar Kandidatka: Kaja Gulič Maribor, 2009

4 UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR IZJAVA O AVTORSTVU Podpisana Kaja Gulič, roj v Mariboru, izredna študentka Filozofske fakultete v Mariboru, smer nemški in angleški jezik s književnostjo, izjavljam, da je diplomsko delo z naslovom THE ANALYSIS OF ONE-ACT PLAYS BY GILLIAN PLOWMAN (Analiza enodejank Gillian Plowman) pri mentorici dr. Darji D. Hribar avtorsko delo. V diplomskem delu so uporabljeni viri in literatura korektno navedeni; teksti niso prepisani brez navedbe avtorjev. Kaja Gulič Maribor,

5 A STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Kaja Gulič, born 12. December 1977 in Maribor, a student of Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor, Department of English and American Studies and Department of German Languages and Literatures, hereby declares that the diploma paper, titled THE ANALYSIS OF ONE-ACT PLAYS BY GILLIAN PLOWMAN, under the mentorship of dr. Darja D. Hribar, is my own work. The works used in this paper are cited correctly; the texts have not been rewritten without acknowledgements of their authors. Kaja Gulič Maribor,

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to express my warm appreciation to all those who have helped to make this a better diploma paper which turned out to be a very positive experience. Among them I am particularly grateful to my mentor dr. Darja D. Hribar for her professional guidance, valuable time, advice and suggestions.

7 POVZETEK Diplomsko delo razčlenjuje tri dramska besedila Gillian Plowman Me and My Friend (1990), The Window Cleaner (2006) in The Ox and the Ass. Avtorica podrobno raziskuje in razčlenjuje glavne osebe in jezikovne ter slogovne značilnosti del, kot se kažejo na ravni registra ter pogovornih in sleng izrazov. Prvi del diplomskega dela obsega zgodovino enodejanke in njene bistvene značilnosti. Drugi del raziskuje jezikovne in slogovne značilnosti značajev in posameznih iger ter ugotavlja podobnosti in razlike med njimi, ki jih nato povzema v zaključnem delu. Avtorico zanima, v koliki meri je pisateljici uspelo prilagoditi navidezno preprost zaplet zahtevnejšim potrebam publike 21. stoletja. Ključne besede: drama, dramatika, enodejanka, slog, jezikovna razčlemba, Gillian Plowman, Me and My Friend, The Window Cleaner, The Ox and the Ass.

8 ABSTRACT This diploma paper explores three dramatic texts by Gillian Plowman Me and My Friend (1990), The Window Cleaner (2006) and The Ox and the Ass. Its main topic is the study of characters featuring in the works and their linguistic and stylistic expression as shown at the levels of register, colloquialisms and slang. In the first part, the history and basic features of the one act play are discussed. In the second part, linguistic and stylistic features of the plays are examined, paying special attention to the differences and similarities between characters and plays. The examination provides a framework for the comparison which is summarized in the concluding part of the paper. The author s main concern is to establish main differences and similarities between stylistic makeup of individual plays and characters and to find out to what extent the playwright has succeeded in adapting seemingly simple plot for the more demanding audiences of the 21 century. Key words: drama, one act play, style, linguistic analysis, Gillian Plowman, Me and My Friend, The Window Cleaner, The Ox and the Ass.

9 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION GILLIAN PLOWMAN AND HER WRITINGS Plowman s writing style THE HISTORY AND EXCELLENCE OF THE ONE-ACT PLAY The Little Theatre Movement ME AND MY FRIEND Characters and Actions Stylistic Features of the Play Register, Colloquialisms and Taboo Expressions Register Colloquialisms Taboo Expressions THE WINDOW CLEANER Characters and Actions Stylistic Features of the Play Register, Colloquialisms, and Taboo Expressions THE OX AND THE ASS Characters and Actions Stylistic Features of the Play Register, Colloquialism and Taboo Expressions DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE PLAYS CONCLUSION WORKS CITED AND CONSULTED APPENDICES... 37

10 1. INTRODUCTION Had not both my mentor and the author of the plays Gillian Plowman acted with the greatest generosity, this piece of work could not have been made as it turned out to be. My four years of exploring and focusing on British and American literature made me realize that the deepest meaning often lies in details, in the meaning of single words, in the dialogue. What has intrigued me most about the world of literature was imagination, exploration and the search for meaning that goes beyond the words. When I explored possible topics for my diploma paper I came to a conclusion that I want to compare, relate and examine. How diverse literature can be is obvious from the many great literary masterpieces, many of them reflecting feelings of powerlessness and alienation, as do Gillian Plowman s plays. This paper is divided into two main parts. In the first part, a few paragraphs provide some basic information about Gillian Plowman, her writing style and her work. Later a brief general insight into the history of one-act plays is given, providing an idea of what constitutes a one-act play. The second part comprises the analyses of three plays by Plowman. The analyses compare and contrast the relationships between individual characters of the plays. After a short introduction of each play, a deeper look into the overall linguistic and stylistic analysis is provided, paying special attention to the register, colloquialisms and slang used in the plays. The study is based on the analysis of the most salient lexical, grammatical and cohesive features of the play, on the basis of which the final comparison and establishment of differences and similarities among them are provided. The findings confirm the author s initial assumption that there is a greater deal of similarities among them and the fact that the playwright has, to a great extent, succeeded in adapting seemingly simple plots for the more demanding audiences of the 21 century. 1

11 2. GILLIAN PLOWMAN AND HER WRITINGS 2.1 Plowman s writing style Style has been defined in many ways and by a number of authors. As to Leech and Short (1981: 10), style is applied to spoken and written language but it is mostly associated with written literary texts. A term style refers to the way of writing, to how language is used. It is a selection of words in a given context and the term has been applied to the linguistic habits of a particular writer and characteristics of the writer s language use (ibid). When referring to authorial style, where style and author s personality come together, it is more difficult to define or identify the writer s linguistic habits. They may vary from author to author and this seems to confirm that each text writer has a unique, particular repertoire of linguistic habits and characteristics that somehow give one away. The style of a text betrays the writer s style, which differs from one author to another because there are different ways of saying the same thing. Generally, style is something that belongs to the text as a whole. On the other hand, if a text shows a repeated preference it is naturally to consider this preference a feature of style. Hatim and Mason (1990: 47-50) state that variation in language use depends on the user. One has been given the stylistic choice on which affect a given situation and the language used in it. The term register is used when taking into account this kind of variation of language activity in a specific context in which it takes place. There are three features of register, each one corresponding to written or spoken language: 1. Field of discourse, which is referred to the field of activity. 2. Mode of discourse, which denotes the medium of the language activity and shows how the features of mode are represented in writing. 3. Tenor of discourse, which plays the main role between the addresser and the addressee and covers degrees of formality and informality. The literary output of Gillian Plowman defies exact classification. Nevertheless, her narrative technique, the multiplicity of themes and richness of vocabulary do not make her difficult to define. She is a sitcom writer who sometimes shows a tragi-comic balance of her characters. Her one act and full length plays have been published and are 2

12 constantly being performed in festivals and theatres. They are widely read not only by scholars and literary critics but also by the general public. Consequently, Plowman is one of the most popular and recognised authors in English literature of the post-war period. Despite the unquestionable thematic diversity, some reappearing motifs can be noted, mostly subjects centred on ideas of society and culture, as well as existential issues. The overtone of Gillian Plowman's writings is recognized and appreciated for its ability to entertain and to handle important and sensitive topics with humour and insight (acquired September 28, 2009 from Moreover, her tone is frequently ironic or even satirical but, still, her criticism of middle-class mentality is fairly justified. So far, she has written a wide collection of one-act and full-length plays. Her plays were highly awarded. Me and My Friend won Gillian the 1988 Verity Bargate Award and was the winner of Theatre Ontario Festival It was first produced at Soho Poly Theatre in London, in 1990, and published by Samuel French, London. The Ox and the Ass was first performed in 2000 at NDFA drama festivals and went to the NDFA British All Winners. It followed the World Premiere in 2007 at Theatre 503 in London. The Window Cleaner was published by Samuel French in London in 2006 and has not been produced yet. 3

13 3. THE HISTORY AND EXCELLENCE OF THE ONE-ACT PLAY Since two of the plays discussed here are one-act plays and one, though composed of three acts, can also be performed as two one-act plays, let us first examine basic characteristics of this kind of drama. The history of this new appealing form of drama and literature goes back to the early years of the 20th century. Before it stood in the foreground, one-act plays were used as curtain raisers in theatres all over the country for the purpose of entertaining before the big play of the evening. It was intended to introduce variety into an evening at the theatre. As Brander Matthews (acquired September 23, 2009 from C946195D6CF) suggests the one-act play is very far from being a novelty, which ought to be evident to anyone who has a brief acquaintance with the history of the drama. The one-act play bears semblance to the short story and has its own technique. According to Matthews The central theme is projected swiftly, and the play, with its several subplots, continues to move on to its inevitable climax. It may be, on occasion, swift and straightforward, direct and dramatic, not knowing where it is going to end. It is not only exciting and vibrant, but also realistic and authentic. Nevertheless the true one-act play has to achieve compression and directness; it can be thrilling, poetically beautiful, superbly dramatic or deliciously amusing. It can delight us with shrewd understanding of character or bubble with humour (ibid). As to Cohen (2009: XIII-XIX) The one-act play is admirable in itself, as a medium of art. A short story is not a condensed, more concentrated novel any more than one-act play is a condensed full-length play. There is no fixed length for the one-act play, but it must have its dominant incident and dominant character. She adds that a human being is the best plot and true dramatic action is what characters do. A good dialogue is again character that stimulates interest or excitement and holds the audience. One-act play has no distracting incidents because of the time limitation and the structure of this form is less flexible: a single dominant theme is necessary and it is to be announced early in the play. For the same reason, theme s crisis may be crisis of a character and 4

14 must achieve swift characterization by means of dialogue. Moreover, this dominant theme calls for a single situation that is developed to a single climax, which ultimately has to relieve audience s tension (ibid.). What is more, it can be infinitely various and the effect or success of this short dramatic form is measured by the way it makes its readers and spectators feel. It is judged by its power to interest and enlighten. One-act plays can be indubitable tragedies, can have tragic themes of love s disillusionment, can be shadowed by death, rich in comedy and changed from comedy to farce and from farce back to comedy (ibid.). The one-act play has everything: brevity, variety, a terse style of writing and concision of words, brisk and straightforward characterization and careful use of production. Throughout the time professional dramatists have turned completely to writing one-act plays for the amateur or little theatre stage, keeping these alive and exciting. 3.1 The Little Theatre Movement The term little theatres denotes university and church theatres, and amateur and industrial dramatic groups, which started to flourish on both sides of the Atlantic at the beginning of the 20th century. The Little Theatres is the new development in the history of drama that has encouraged and promoted the writing of one-act plays. The movement began by young dramatists and actors who were influenced by the essential and most important European theatre of the late 19th century, such as the Théâtre-Libre of Paris, the Freie Bühne in Berlin, and the Moscow Art Theatre. According to Cohen (2009: XXIII-XXIV) the first theatres of that kind were placed in large cities; but as time went by they were moved to small towns and rural communities. These theatres were housed in small, simple buildings, barns or schools, where the play s scenery was mostly cheaply home made. In Europe these new little playhouses came into existence in order to free dramatic forms of production from the limitations of the large commercial theatres. For this reason they established small experimental centres of drama where actors were mostly amateurs. 5

15 One of the first of the Little Theatres was The Irish National Theatre, which was a pioneer of that art in Great Britain. The enquiry What could be done to save the British Drama? was the most uttered in those days. It were the Irish Abbey Players of Dublin who travelled to London each year and played in different cities and aroused the commitment and wholeheartedness of England s young players. They were the reason for the beginning of the Little Theatre Movement, which spread rapidly all over the British Empire. According to Cohen, The Little Theatre was, however, a theatre, producing its plays on a small stage and selecting most frequently the one-act play for its production. It was a natural unit of production in new theatres because it required a less sustained performance from the actors. There was a freedom for the actor in these Little Theatre groups to develop his talent by playing a variety of parts that cannot be found in a professional company (Cohen, 2009: XXIV). 6

16 4. ME AND MY FRIEND The play was first produced in Soho Poly Theatre, London in It was published by Samuel French the same year. Me and My Friend won Gillian the 1988 Verity Bargate Award and was the winner of Theatre Ontario Festival The play consists of three acts, the first and the second act featuring also as two one-act plays. Me and My Friend is therefore a "full-length" play, or two one-act plays. The play was presented on Channel 4, BBC, and translated into French and Danish. Presented extremely funny and powerful, this black comedy explores the relationship between two unusual couples. It is set in council flats situated on two different floors of the same building used for the rehabilitation of psychiatric patients after their hospital care. The patients are encouraged to make their way back into the civil and social life. 4.1 Characters and Actions The first act introduces us to the world of two men, Bunny and Oz, who, after their release from psychiatric hospital, are learning to live together. Trying to plan ahead, the two men are leafing through newspapers looking for jobs they will never get. Aware that something as simple as a job interview can throw everything off balance, laid-back Oz and high-strung Bunny practise mock interviews dressed in jacket, tie and pyjamas. They get constantly distracted by unimportant things like squirting the air freshener, nervousness, their appearance, the ozone layer and skin cancer. Everything gets out of proportion when they concentrate on things they cannot do anything about. Fond of encyclopaedia expressions and intelligent conversation Bunny wants to show off with his curriculum vitae and praises his work as well as himself. Since he is not satisfied with the way his fictitious job interview turned out, Bunny gets furious and grabs Oz by the collar, thus assuring his fictitious position with the help of a threatening technique. They blame each other for not doing anything about unemployment and make excuses on a daily basis. When the conversation passes to women they are inexperienced in everything they decide to do. Unable to stop thinking about women they practice phoney dates and carry 7

17 out date-to-be conversations. From leafing through the papers and practicing job interviews the word constantly passes to women and circumcising, their most essential events of the day, convinced, that getting circumcised will give them more confidence and self-esteem. Oz is no longer able to overcome the simple things in life: he cannot shave properly, cannot iron his shirt, or polish his shoes. Bunny, who is no longer able to hide behind the mask of humour, ends in a nervous breakdown and attempts to commit suicide. Though it may sound depressing, the play is very humorous and convincingly reveals the pain Bunny and Oz are suffering, their strong affection for each other and their devastation when it all goes wrong. The story reveals the world outside the hospital where people create their own reality. The struggle to adjust to life after their confinement in psychiatric institution is seen in the overall plot where the reality is going on a search for the job with a lack of self-esteem. The Act II is set upstairs, where the women are building a tower of coin-filled Coke cans as a way of saving up for a holiday in France. Robin, a middle-class housewife who suffocated her own son, and Julia, a younger woman who used to be on the game, have evolved a self-deceived system for cutting down on their household spending. Despite of having some minor personal problems like migraines and giving up smoking they struggle bravely through everyday life with the exception they have just been released from the psychiatric institution. Coping to live in the world outside the four walls and thinking that giving up coffee and cigarettes would help them to get by is entirely wrong. Their fear of not being able to live on their own and/or helping each other is stronger each day and seen in word games, pain-free moments and endless daydreaming. A gift for the ladies in number seventeen, the red dress, provokes their psychiatric problem, when sent through the post with no note attached. The unexpected parcel, nicely wrapped by the two men, gives reason to their who-could-sent-it confusion. Its unexplained arrival throws the women back on their past lives and loves. Both continue playing imaginary roles like the two men practice job interviews. This is the moment when we get to know what happened with their past lives. Wearing the red dress, Robin 8

18 tells her story of a dedicated mother whose boy often fell ill and how she put her son before her husband. Julia, some moments later, drifts back in time when she gave pleasure to Welsh men. The continuous cycle of flash backs results in interruptions, which throw us back to their present lives in the flat number seventeen. In the last act these two couples are finally brought together in a party scene full of excellent jokes, social embarrassment and pain where social politeness, niceties and accuracy are turned on their head. Protagonists actions in this story lead to a very important point: for what is important to one whole race can mean nothing to one individual. After Bunny's release from the hospital Oz throws a welcome party and invites Julia and Robin over to cheer them up. Almost convinced about the success of the party our expectations are soon turned upside down. Instead of polite conversation Plowman serves us with the most confused lines lacking some common sense. Both couples do not know how to approach each other and what is more they are unable to carry out a simple dialogue without twisting the words and telling the slightest detail about their poor personality. The plot repeatedly reveals their past and there is no doubt that mental institution and all the bad things it brings with it, leave deep marks on the souls of those involved. Oz insists on meeting his mother and brings in foreground gloomy postman days and hatred for Ford Granada, being the cause for all the trouble in the world. Julia preaches constantly, as her mother used to do, about Robin crawling into men s beds while Bunny recalls his neglected, red-headed wife. It is here that the author best demonstrates her ability to move from hilarity to the shocking and back again in the twinkling of an eye. 4.2 Stylistic Features of the Play A close reading of the play reveals mostly simple and colloquial vocabulary, the content of which seems to have very little to do with what the characters are trying to say. At times the language is very formal and elevated, even poetic, then again it suddenly and inadvertently slips into everyday, colloquial or even taboo language. A thorough 9

19 linguistic analysis conducted according to the method offered by Leech and Short (1981) however shows that the language has a specific communicative role and expresses social, mental and emotional state of its users. Act 1 opens with the conversation between Bunny and Oz, playing roles of Mr. Burkwood (the employer), played by Oz, and Mr. Marshall (a job seeker), played by Bunny. Trying to be utmost formal and polite they use formal and polite language. Sometimes, however, they forget about their roles and assume their normal everyday behaviour and expression. This accounts for a number of sudden changes of register and other language varieties in the play. Besides, the language also points to the character of their users. Bunny likes sophisticated (long and intelligent, as he himself puts it) words. He likes complicated things and phenomena, paying utmost attention to the meaning and sound of words. By doing this, he wants to prove his worth, but many times fails due to his emotional imbalance and intellectual shortages. Oz, on the other hand, is a more down to earth person. His register is more formal, less polite and less prone to sudden changes. His language is mostly colloquial and foul. However, when remembering his wrecked past he too becomes more emotional, thus changing his register. While pretending to be the adequate persons for the job both characters aim toward Standard English, being keen on using long, proper words or adjectives that people of a high rank would use. This does not last long and after a while we find ourselves reading something else, with interruptions of slang and their everyday language from the hospital. Beside through their actions, Julia and Robin reveal their characters and emotional state also through the use of language. Since their main concern is not job seeking and appearance, they do not use the elevated language. Their main goal is the unreachable getaway, so they express themselves in a not overly intelligent language of informal register. It is only when they drift back into their past that they assume a rather formal register with occasional interferences of the sudden informal register change. Both pay attention to the sound and are prone to experiment with words and rhymes. 10

20 The mood of the story changes from funny to dark. From the protagonists hilarious struggle to their incapability of living in the outside world. At the beginning of the play I found myself laughing at it but when I got deeper into the story I felt uneasy and the characters, unable to differ from the world in the hospital and the reality which embraces them every day and in which they are struggling to live, still remain weak in every aspect of their lives. The stories are there to wake us up and to see the inevitable situation. Though the endings stay open, we somehow believe that Bunny and Oz are not going to stay in the house neither as patients nor as two free individuals seeking a better life. We also know that Julia and Robin will never get to Paris. It is painful to observe that after every unsuccessful verbal fight they flee into the past and remember the moment which drove them to hospital. The author has organised the chronology of events in a straightforward timeline with an exception that it also covers events referred to the characters past. Each time the four protagonists remember their past and the mistakes they have made, there is a strong will to overcome them. Unfortunately, they are unsuccessful Register, Colloquialisms and Taboo Expressions Register Registers are use-related varieties which differ from each other in grammar and lexis, i.e. in language form. Language variations differ depending on the user, thus we distinguish geographical, social, temporal, standard/non standard and idiolectal variation (Hatim and Mason, 1990: 39). Besides graphological and grammatical features, also the quality of language (poetic, archaic, colloquial, etc.) betrays to what class a person belongs, what education s/he has and what his/her intentions are. To be able to establish the status of a word, a non-native speaker has to rely on the labels provided in good dictionaries and other secondary material. The identification of the character of the context in which a word occurs depends also on the establishment of intertextuality and intentionality as well as other pragmatic features of the text. 11

21 Language is always used in a certain situation. Sociolect is the language used by members of the same social group within a speech community. As opposed to sociolect, idiolect refers to the personal register, the individualized use each speaker makes of a language. But since each speaker is also a member of at least one social group belonging to the larger group of all users of that language, the distinction between idiolect and sociolect is not always easy to make. Accents are morphological features that most clearly identify an idiolect. As already mentioned above, the language of the play is mostly simple and colloquial. At times, however, it is also very formal and elevated, even poetic then again it suddenly and inadvertently slips into everyday, even bad/taboo language. Let us see some examples. There are many words or phrases that depart from straightforward, literal language and are used and crafted for emphasis, to produce special, often poetic effect. Among formal and structural repetition, there are: - Anaphora (the repetition of a word at the beginning of a clause, line, or sentence, reinforcing what has been said) In Act I Oz uses it for reinforcement of his statements: Stop squirting chlorofluorocarbons. Stop buying them. Stop making them (Plowman 1990: 2), My mother wouldn t have done that to me. My mother didn t (Plowman 1990: 3), Good-morning, man in five-b. Good-morning, postman. (Plowman, 1990: 9). In Act II, Julia and Robin remind themselves of what has been said in the hospital, helping them to survive during their stay out: I, I, Am, Am, In, In, Charge of myself, Charge of myself, You know where to go. You go to the doctor. You know where he is, You re a thief. You steal things all the time (Plowman, 1990: 20, 25, 30). 12

22 - Epistrophe (a repetition of a word at the end of a clause, line or sentence) In both acts Oz and Bunny and Julia and Robin use it for the reinforcement of their statements: Act I: Shall I sit down?, Please sit down, Stop buying them. Stop making them., Nobody could talk about weasels. Talk about weasels, Oz (Plowman, 1990: act I, 1-2). Act II: You didn t get any food!, I couldn t get tins, and change, and food!, It s not time. Yes it is, it s time (Plowman, 1990: act II, 19). - Alliteration (the repetition of the initial consonant in a sentence) is also found in both acts. Sounds and meanings of the words combine to create a mood. Here, repetition of m, w and t stresses a feeling of urgency: Act I: Excuse me a moment, Mr. Marshall (Plowman, 1990: 1), Where I went to work., That s what they told us to do (Plowman, 1990: 5-6). Act II: They don t just throw them away-they squash them up and throw them... (Plowman, 1990: 18), They should have left us where we were (Plowman, 1990: 21). Alliteration is an important sound technique which makes particular words stand out and connects the words to be emphasized. All four characters probably use it to call attention to certain words and to reinforce what has been said. When putting oneself into the role of each protagonist one can hear them emphasizing particular words and sounds with the undertone of the unsuccessful struggle in the outside world. - Assonance (the repetition of a vowel) is also employed, but less frequent: Act I: You work all day and nearly all night (Plowman, 1990: 11), Act II: Not at all? (Plowman, 1990: 17). 13

23 Julia and Robin play more with language than the male protagonists, incorporating as much rhyme as possible, giving the play a sound of a word game. Partly it seems to be enjoyed simply as a repeating pattern that is pleasant to hear: Tim-grim, Tim-prim, Tim-dim, Timmy-Jimmy, Twins-bins, Prick, Trick, Kick, dick, tick, lick, flick, Knock, Clock, Frock, Shock... (Plowman, 1990: 20). - Trope (a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words. It is a way of turning a word away from its normal meaning, in a way other than what is considered) In a job interview Bunny chooses predominantly formal and encyclopaedic expressions. He is known as an enthusiastic lover of dictionaries and encyclopaedias because he likes the powerful sound of words. His speech is full of literary words but at the same time his language contains deviations from Standard English, which indicates his lack of proper expression in everyday language: Act I: I farted, And I believe the fucking customer is always right (Plowman, 1990: 1, 5). Oz and Bunny s language contains a word game with the word potato where they act out a situation in which Bunny plays a woman. Oz comes out of a kitchen with a tray of potatoes and bread and offers him (her) potatoes. Bunny refuses it saying they have only just met and she is not that kind of girl. Confusing potatoes for "per-tay-toes" slightly changes the meaning and the word game is achieved (Plowman, 1990: 7). The above figures of speech indicate the characters effort at using "rich" vocabulary, thus demonstrating their ability to play with the language and consequently their maturity for an independent life in the new world outside the hospital. 14

24 Colloquialisms Colloquialisms are deviations from Standard English usage. They appear at syntactic, graphological or phonological levels. Writers often deviate from the accepted grammatical usage to focus attention on their mistake (Lefevere 1992: 35). Grammatical errors are usually illustrative of some important feature of the work. The most common dialectal and grammatical mistakes are: - the use of colloquial vocabulary, - short, uncomplicated grammatical structures, - the shortening and curtailing of words (graphological and phonological features) - double negation (grammatical feature) - the use of was in the place of were and vice versa (grammatical feature) - the omission of auxiliary verbs (grammatical feature) - the use of the present tense for all other tenses (grammatical feature) - the use of accusative form of personal pronouns before a noun (them slippers) (grammar). Me and My Friend abounds in colloquial expressions which most often indicate the pretended social differences among the speakers. Apart from the above mistakes, the play mostly exposes general, simple and concrete vocabulary, containing: - idiomatic phrases: to blow hot and cold, to work your fingers to the bone (Plowman, 1990: 6, 11); in the long run, make a fuss, get cross (Plowman, 1990: 18, 24, 23); - phrasal verbs: run out, make up, give up, stay off, fill up, take off, look after, try on, put on, eat up, tidy up (Plowman, 1990: 17-26); - slang expressions: Oh, shit, oh shit (Plowman, 1990: 2). While pretending to be the adequate person for the job both characters aim toward Standard English, meaning they are keen on using long, proper words or adjectives that people of a high rank would use. This does not last long and after a while we find ourselves reading something else, with interruptions of slang and their everyday language from the hospital, especially when the characters forget about their good manners during the interview and while making plans to go to France. 15

25 Also sentences on the whole have a very simple structure. The average sentence length consists of five to eight words and sometimes very short sentences lead the plays. The independent clauses dominate throughout the play. However (especially Bunny), when they want to impress somebody, their sentences become longer and more complicated though still of a simple coordinative structure (and and and), characteristic of colloquial expression: - My father was. And the registrar. He worried about getting people s names right. He told my father, and my father told me, and I ve remembered it ever since, which is especially useful in my work, well anybody s, that a person s name is his most personal thing, and it s most important to get it perfectly correct, otherwise it upsets them (Plowman, 1990: 3). The play proffers a wide trove of contractions which can set the tone of communication. Shortening of words affects not only the tone and quality of words or information we are trying to convey, but it makes also the information friendlier, natural and more personal: - I ll keep her then (Plowman, 1990: 15), - Don t do that! Here s a towel. It s best not to go to sleep, I think (Plowman, 1990: 14). The omission of auxiliary verbs also points to the colloquial nature of speech in the play: - I took evening classes in management and business studies ONC. There. (He points) And applied for a job as a print manager. Rival firm, but it has to be done, doesn t it? Short-listed six out of fifteen applicants, and I got it! Print manager! A big section. Eight men. Committed, the boss said. The Managing Director (Plowman, 1990: 4). In act I, Bunny omits the use of auxiliary verbs for the purpose of showing off and to prove his self esteem, thus showing us he is the right man for the offered position. This is not the only time we see him boasting with his pompous curriculum vitae, what is 16

26 more, with his inappropriate manner and known for his short fuse he deters a person and fails to control his quick temper Taboo Expressions Each speaker reveals one's attitude with communication, everyday exchanges and linguistic etiquette such as polite talk, swearing, slang, euphemism and political correctness. Words denoted as slang, taboo, vulgar should be avoided, though they may be encountered in every day speech or even in fiction and drama. Words as such are better avoided in conversation unless we speak about literature or poetry. Having unpleasant and ugly connotation, taboo expressions are avoided in the play, especially when the characters want to show themselves well-mannered and polite. Sometimes, however, they forget about their roles and assume their normal everyday behaviour and expression: - I farted (Plowman, 1990: 1), - Oh shit, oh shit. As we haven't got enough problems (Plowman, 1990: 2), - And I believe the fucking customer is always right (he grabs Oz by the collar) (Plowman, 1990: 5). The above examples clearly show that when forgetting about their roles there is a sudden change of register and other language varieties in the play. 17

27 5. THE WINDOW CLEANER This compassionate and entertaining play shows a story of a man and a woman who meet in an expensive flat off the King s Road: Daryl, a young, street-wise burglar and Jill, a precise window cleaner, who served time for killing her husband who abused her. Making a new start as a window cleaner, Jill disturbs Daryl when burgling the apartment. Not knowing what to do and out of anger Daryl holds Jill captive. She gets him talking about his crime life, young daughter and the wife who left him. In turn, Jill relates her tragic history and it gradually becomes apparent they have much in common. The end of the play reveals a final twist which ends in an unlikely partnership with hope for the future. 5.1 Characters and Actions The characters of the play seem to resemble the play Me and My Friend, with the exception Daryl and Jill are not mentally disordered. They met unexpectedly and are faced with four walls and a complete stranger in front of each other. However, this time each of the characters are there to change each other s lives. Jill changes Daryl s perception by showing him how to fight and stand up for his daughter and to become a better person. Daryl becomes a helping hand and the two start business as partners. At the very beginning of the play Daryl is shown as a true criminal. He is determined to steal everything that comes in his way, everything that glitters and catches his eye. His plans are crossed at the moment Jill enters the living room. As we learn later, she thinks Daryl is one of the owners who have returned from holidays. However, a short glimpse in his full bag makes her aware of his intentions. At this time they start a verbal fight and things get worse when Daryl loses his temper and starts threatening Jill. Daryl s character proves weak many times. With this Plowman suggests his insecurity in his actions and his own statements. This insecurity remains unchanged even though Daryl becomes more and more courageous. He is full of himself and aggressive in his manner of speaking. He is determined to frighten Jill, but more than that, he soon wants to possess the objects and disappear: 18

28 DARYL. "Scream and I ll slap yer." (Plowman, 2006: 12) With each sentence we feel his determination grows weaker. At times he does not know what to do, he is impatient and inexperienced when settling the matter, and yet his behaviour shows that he is not absolutely sure about his actions. On the contrary, Jill is more experienced with words and always finds the right one to reply. She has to show much more patience in order to survive. The first pages of the play suggest we should not trust Daryl and it soon becomes clear it is Jill who is more rational and with one foot on the ground. Her answers give the impression she wants to help him and not merely to maintain the conversation. His apparent neglectance of Jill s help is clearly marked in a sentence: DARYL. "You re joking! I m helping myself " (Plowman, 2006: 16) The play is full of word games. Jill s carefully constructed utterances and sharp replays reveal how fearless she is to his actions and threats. She takes advantage of his stupidity and plays with his answers, asking him questions in order to know how he is thinking in a particular situation. Later in the play Jill is the one who seems to be taking one step forward in leading the conversation. We realize how determined she is to lead him to the right path, to persuade him to take control over his life and to see deeper into things and situations: JILL. "That s what happens! Why does it happen? Haven t you got any control over your life? Haven t you got a brain? You don t look disabled, but there must be something wrong in your head. That s what happens. Don t let it happen. Do something about it." (Plowman, 2006: 26) Showing his power and superiority, Daryl keeps Jill captive in the flat, unabling her to call for help and to continue window cleaning. A remarkable twist in Daryl s behaviour is evident when Jill addresses him with simple constructed utterances which touch his heart: JILL. "It s sick. Hurting people smaller than you who have done no harm. You re sick." 19

29 DARYL. "I don t want to! I don t. I ve got a little girl. I love her. I wouldn t want anyone to hurt her, ever. Even when I m dead and she s old. " JILL. "If you can hurt me, someone can hurt your little girl. Just the same. And she s done nothing and I ve done nothing and you ll make the world go round the wrong way." (Plowman, 2006: 31) These are words which drastically change Daryl s point of view. His apparent change, not only that he is willing to communicate normally but also to lead a normal life with his daughter beside him, is the first sign of his inner transformation. Jill opens Daryl s eyes and shows him he has to be there for his daughter, he has to give Frederica a father and fight for more time with her, sort things out, start living and find a proper job. It is his personality she will remember him for. Jill s dark past life and her four years in prison, where her daughter was born and given for adoption, mark the hardest struggle in her life. At this point both protagonists are equal because they both have lost the most precious thing that still keeps them going. Determined to end his long time career as a burglar, Daryl accepts Jill s offer to be her right hand in a window cleaning business. 5.2 Stylistic Features of the Play Register, Colloquialisms, and Taboo Expressions Also when reading The Window Cleaner one often comes across a word or phrase which attracts one s attention because it does or does not seem to fit in the context in which it appears. The language of the play is colloquial, dialectal and contains many swear words. Both characters Daryl and Jill belong to the lower social strata and use the language and expressions which are adequate and fit the characters like theirs. They also use formal language, especially when indicating a higher appreciation of each other or when wanting to manipulating each other s feelings. Here are some examples from the play. (i) Daryl opens the play with swear words, indicating his impulsiveness and bad temper: DARYL. "Fuckin ell!" 20

30 DARYL. "Shit!" (Plowman, 2006: 4, 5) The entire conversation abounds in colloquialisms and bad language. (ii) When discussing the reasons contra Daryl s practices of robbing people, still at the beginning of the play when no personal relationship has been established yet between the protagonists, Jill uses colloquialisms to show her loyalty to the same social class as Daryl, thus trying to get a chance to approach him on a more personal (humane) basis: JILL. "I mean for example, you nick this bloke s computer, and he s got a load of child pornography on it, where you going to get rid of that if it s on the hard disc, eh? You could get done for that." (Plowman, 2006: 20) (iii) Daryl is still not convinced about her good intentions: DARYL. "Shit bloody fuckin hell look I could have got this lot to someone I know with me rent in me pocket by tea time and I m stuck here listening to a load of crap from an ugly little cow. Look at the state of your hands." (Plowman, 2006: 35) At the beginning colloquialisms, dialectal expressions and swear words seem inappropriate and strong. However, once the reader gets to know the characters better, the language becomes less disturbing. Both characters are very interested in what they have to say and in keeping the conversation going. Taking into consideration their social status and their immediate intentions and needs, the language becomes acceptable since it is a very powerful tool in their hands. Expressions from the play and their meanings 1 are shown in the following table: dunno (p. 6) rich gits (p. 9) a short version of "don't know" a completely ignorant, childish person with no manners. 1 Definitions taken from on-line dictionaries:

31 shit! (p. 5) used to express annoyance, anger, disgust or surprise slap yer (you) (p.12) a blow made with an opened hand to nick (p. 20) To steal something a bloke (p. 20) british word for a man, guy yackin (p. 18) Chatter cos (p. 15) Because wanna (p. 19) want to to smash em (them) (p. 24) break into pieces; damage or destroy as if by violence d ya, gonna (p. 27) Do you, going to to blab (p. 32) speak (about unimportant matters) rapidly and incessantly to flaunt (p. 36) display proudly; to show or make obvious something you are proud of in order to get admiration do in ere (p. 49) Do in here to smack someone (p.54) to hit someone or something forcefully with the flat inside part of your hand, producing a brief loud noise gotta tell him (p. 55) short form of have got to to be square (p. 57) To be fair and honest 22

32 It is interesting to observe that the places where a deviation from written language occurs are much fewer in number at the end of the play. This is probably due to the fact that the tension and hostility between the protagonists have considerably decreased and they do not need to impose their will on each other any more. Compared to Me and My Friend, the language of The Window Cleaner is equally simple, colloquial and idiomatic. However, Daryl s language style changes at the very moment when the conversation passes to his daughter Federica, indicating his realization of life he never knew, and his willingness to become a better person. Thus his capacity of inner transformation is shown also in his language, whereas the linguistic expression of the characters from Me and My Friend remains unchanged. The play contains also some more poetic lexical features stressing emotional and auditory force of the dialogue. One of them is alliteration. So, when, for instance, Daryl wants to persuade Jill to abandon his violent practices, she helps herself with the auditory power of gutturals and plosives: DARYL. " You can carry on doing poncy places like this, I mean - they ll just do the insurance company. You can t keep carrying on killing people." (Plowman 2006: 34) The repetition of "c" and "p" intensifies the alliteration and the stress on each of the two words. The final effect of the alliteration is even stronger because each of the words in the last sentence is stressed and the rhythm of the whole sentence places the stress only on the words beginning with "c" and "k" whereas "you" and "people" stay without its own accent. 23

33 6. THE OX AND THE ASS The Ox and The Ass is a beautifully observed play about a dysfunctional relationship of father and son. Henry welcomes his father, Jeremy, into his flat and into his life, but their lives are worlds apart, giving them little in common. Henry, a teacher of high moral standards and in his middle 30 s, becomes deeply affected by his father s arrival when the past starts to affect the present. Jeremy in his late 50 s is ex-landed gentry who turned to crime. Recently released from jail he wants to compensate the lost years with his son. 6.1 Characters and Actions Also here Plowman uses simplified and stereotyped characters. The story is based on different lives of two men, father and son, who seem drawn from reality, each living in their own little world. The crime blinds Jeremy to the world around him, and leads him behind the bars. Jeremy accepts his son s invitation to stay with him after spending time in prison in order to decide what to do with his life. The flat becomes a place of endless clash between the two generations where father and son tell their sides of the story. The play opens in a simple way by entering into Henry s flat. Jeremy has been given a room until he gets organised, until he sees what to do with the rest of his life when one door shuts and the other one opens. Henry sees it as an outstanding opportunity to catch up and to get to know his father who has been unable to find himself for the last few years: HENRY. "I want you here." JEREMY. "Why? " HENRY. "You are my father." JEREMY. "Bloody awful one. " HENRY. "I haven t seen much of you lately so this seemed like a good opportunity to catch up." (Plowman: 4) 24

34 The conflict between the two characters starts right at the beginning of the story: strolling through the flat Jeremy comes across a sculpture he would like to examine closer and leave a touch that could enhance Henry s bust. Just the thought of that makes Henry s blood boil. This is one of their minor misunderstandings, which is soon forgotten: HENRY. " What are you doing?" JEREMY. "Interesting tools. " HENRY. "Don t mess about with it!" JEREMY. "Just... " HENRY. "Just don t!" (Plowman: 7, 8) In the past Jeremy moved from burgling to burgling without any particular plan. Now he is aware that he is a disappointment and an embarrassment to his family, who patiently waited for him to return home after long years in prison. Once he was Henry s great inspiration but this time he sees him in his colours. When he was left out of prison his only excitement was being out, celebrating and robbing. It was the only excitement he wanted whereas "all of their excitement was being with him" (Plowman: 20). At this point Henry wants to open Jeremy s eyes, to show him his greatest fear and what and where he did wrong: HENRY. "Do you know what s haunted me for years?" JEREMY. "Tell me." HENRY. "That s it s in the genes. That I would be like you. Mentally I chalk up every little difference..." (Plowman: 22) A new but now unknown chapter in his life, a crime, that he cannot put off, still accompanies him: JEREMY. "Spencer? This is the Ox. I m out...i ve retrieved that old artwork. I thought you d be interested " (Plowman: 23) Jeremy has always wanted to be successful, wealthy and esteemed. He gained "success" through luck rather than hard work. For the very last time he wants to secure for him 25