KAMKUS COLLEGE OF LAW. B.A;LL.B. Ist. SEM. PAPER- I GENERAL ENGLISH- I (Paper Code : BL- 101)

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1 KAMKUS COLLEGE OF LAW B.A;LL.B. Ist. SEM. PAPER- I GENERAL ENGLISH- I (Paper Code : BL- 101)

2 CONTENTS 1. Grammar and Usage (a). Use of tenses, verbs, determiners( including articles) Perpositions; Agreement of verv with the subject. (b). Common errors in English. (c). Baisc transformation: Passive, Interrogative, Reported speech. 2. Question tag and short response, Puncutuation. 3. Legal Comprehension. 4. Translation from Hindi to English and from English to Hindi. 5. Writing Skills: Report Writing, Writing resume and Letter or application.

3 (1) GRAMMAR AND USAGE USE OF TENSES: Tense means arrangement of verbs according to the time of action. It such as Tenses are divided into three parts (1) Present (2) Past (3) Future Each tense is divided into four parts: (1) Present Tense: (a) Present Simple: The present simple is used to express daily routines and habits. Basic Construction Subject+ V1 + s/es +object(s) Frank usually takes a bus to work. Negative: Subject + do / does + not (don't / doesn't) + V1 + object(s) + time Expression They don t often go to Chicago. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + do / does + subject + V1 + object(s) + time Expression How often do you play golf? (b) Present Continuous: The present continuous tense is used for action that is occurring at the moment of speaking, to describe projects and actions scheduled for future events. Remember that only action verbs can take the continuous form. Basic Construction: Positive: Subject + is/am/are + not + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression She is watching TV at the moment. We are working on the Smith account this month. I'm meeting our CEO at three o'clock this afternoon. Negative: They aren't having fun this morning. He isn't studying French this semester. Shelley isn't attending the meeting tomorrow. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + is/am/are + subject + verb + ing + object(s) + time Expression. What are you doing? Which account are you working on this week? When are you discussing the situation with Tom? (c) Present Perfect:

4 Use the present perfect to express a state or repeated action that began in the past and continues into the moment of speaking. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + have / has + past participle V3 + object(s) + time Expression I have lived in Portland for four years. Henry has just gone to the bank. Peter has visited Europe three times in his life. Negative: Subject + have/has not (haven't, hasn't) + past participle V3 + object(s) + time Expression. Max hasn't played tennis since Peter hasn't finished his homework yet. I haven't played golf many times. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + have / has + subject + V3 + object(s) + time Expression Where have you worked since 2002? Have you spoken to Andy yet? Have you ever been to France? (d) Present Perfect Continuous: The present perfect continuous is used to express how long a current activity has been going on. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + has / have + been + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression He's been cleaning house for two hours. Negative: Subject + has / have not (hasn't / haven't) + been + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression Janice hasn't been studying for too long. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + has / have + subject + been + verb + ing + object(s) + (time Expression) How long have you been working in the garden? (2) Past Tense: (a) Past Simple The past simple is used to express something that happened in past. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + V2 + object(s) + time Expression. I went to the doctor's yesterday. Negative: Subject + did + not (didn't) + V1 + object(s) + time Expression They didn't join us for dinner last week.

5 Interrogative: (Question Word) + did + subject + V1 + object(s) + time Expression When did you buy that pullover? (b) Past Continuous: The past continuous tense is used to describe what was happening at a specific moment in time in the past, what was happening when something important happened. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + was / were + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression We were meeting with Jane at two o'clock yesterday afternoon. Sharon was watching TV when she received the telephone call. Negative: Subject + was / were + not (wasn't, weren't) + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression They weren't playing tennis at five o'clock on Saturday. We weren't doing anything important when you arrived. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + was / were + subject + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression. What were you doing at two-thirty yesterday afternoon? What were you doing when Tom gave you the bad news? (c) Past Perfect: The past perfect is used to express something that happened before another point in time. Positive: Subject + had + V3 + object(s) + time Expression She had already eaten by the time the children came home. Negative: Subject + had not (hadn't) + V3 + object(s) + time Expression They hadn't finished their homework before the teacher asked them to hand it in. Interrogative: (Question Word) + had + subject + V3 + object(s) + time Expression Where had you gone before the class began? (d) Past Perfect Continuous The past perfect continuous is used to describe how long an activity had been going on before something else happened. Basic Construction: Positive: Subject + had + been + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression She had been waiting for two hours when he finally arrived. Negative: Subject + had not (hadn't) + been + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression They hadn't been working long when the boss asked them to change their focus.

6 Interrogative: (wh. Word) + had + subject + been + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression How long had Tom been working on that project when they decided to give it to Peter? (3) Future Tense: (a) Future Simple The future with 'will' is used to make future predictions and promises. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + will/shall + V1 + object(s) The government will increase taxes soon. Negative: Subject + will/shall + not + V1 + object(s) She won't help us much with the project. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + V1 + object(s) Why will they reduce taxes? (b) Future Continuous: The future continuous is used to talk about an activity that will be in progress at a specific point in time in the future. Basic Construction: Positive: Subject + will/shall + be + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression Peter will be doing his homework this time tomorrow. Negative: Subject + will/shall + not + be + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression Sharon won't be working in New York in three weeks time. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + be + V1 + ing + object(s) + time Expression What will you be doing this time next year? (c) Future Perfect: Use the future perfect tense to express what will happened by a certain time in the future. Basic Construction Positive: Subject + will/shall + have + past participle V3 + object(s) + time Expression They will have finished the report by tomorrow afternoon. Negative: Subject + will/shall + not + have + past participle V3 + object(s) + time Expression Mary won't have answered all the questions by the end of this hour.

7 Interrogative: (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + have + past participle V3 + object(s) + time Expression What will you have done by the end of this month? (d) Future Perfect Continuous: The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action up to a future point in time. This tense is not commonly used in English. Basic Construction: Positive: Subject + will + have + been + V1 + ing + object(s) We will have been studying for two hours. Negative: Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + V1 + ing + object(s) He won't have been working for three days. Interrogative: (wh. Word) + will/shall + subject + have + been + V1 + ing + object(s) How long will you have been working on that project? Verb patterns and structures: English sentences follow certain patterns. In this section we will first consider some of the commonest verb patterns and then some of the other important structures, both literary and conversational. We have already learned that a sentence consists of two main parts the subject and the predicate. The subject must contain a noun or a pronoun. It may also contain other words like articles (a/an and the), possessives (my, your etc.) or demonstratives (this, that, these and those). The predicate must contain a verb. Sometimes the subject is omitted and then we get one-word sentences. Stop. Who goes there? Listen. I want to tell you something. Then there are sentences of two words they just consist of a noun and an intransitive verb. Examples are:

8 Birds fly. (Subject Birds; verb fly) Water boils. (Subject water; verb boils) Dogs bark. (Subject dogs; verb bark) But we can t get far with short sentences of this kind, so we will have to construct more elaborate sentence patterns. Sentence pattern 1 Subject Granny A gentle breeze The children The sun The storm Intransitive verb + adverb is coming on Monday. was blowing across the meadow. are playing upstairs. has already risen. has at last subsided. Exercise: Write six sentences with the Subjects given below using transitive Verbs and adverbials, as required: 1. The small boat.. 2. The crescent moon.. 3. The excited spectators.. 4. The spring season.. 5. The golden-voiced nightingale A squadron of jet fighters.. Sentence pattern- 2: Subject +Transitive Verb +Direct Object A Transitive Verb is one that has an Object. The normal order of words in an English sentence is Subject+ Verb + Object. (Contrast the Indian languages in which you usually have the order- Subject + Object+ Verb). Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Pratap likes Milk The Principal punished the boy. The Chinese attacked the Russians. Pratap likes... what? Milk. The Principal punished... whom? The boy. The answer to the question what or whom is the Direct Object. Exercise: Fill up the gaps with a Subject, a Transitive Verb or an Object, as required:

9 1. The Assembly the Minimum Wages Bill. 2. The Chief Minister a Press Conference. 3. The Chinese exploded.. 4..have started a space race. 5. The Indian Navy.an aircraft carrier. 6. India must build up. Sentence Pattern- 3: Subject + Verb + Object +Adverb Particle There are some Verbs followed by Particles, e.g., put on, take off, give, bring up, call in. Sometimes the particle is detached from the Verb and put after the Object. Subject Verb Object Adverb Particle Sunil put his hat on They called the doctor in He threw it away His uncle had brought him up Take yourself off Put it out You must send them back The Particle is thus put after the Object, when the Object is a Personal Pronoun-it, me, us, them, etc.,-or when it is comparatively short. Note: The difference between a Particle and a Preposition is that while the Particle is closely tied to its Verb to form idiomatic compounds, the Preposition is closely tied to the Noun or Pronoun which it controls. The following are used only as Particles and never as Prepositions-away, back, out, backward, forward, upward, downward. But on, oil, in, up, down, to, from, etc., are used as Particles and Prepositions. When the Object is long or has to be made prominent or when it is qualified by an Adjectival Phrase or Clause, the Particle comes before the Object. Subject Verb Adverb Particle Object The President gave away the prize We put on an air or innocence The poor will not throw anything Subject Pattern- 4: Subject + Verb+ Indirect Object + Direct Object This order is preferred when the Indirect Object is shorter than the Direct Object.

10 Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The President awarded Sanjay a gold medal The World Bank Promised India a big loan The President awarded the gold medal ' to whom? To Sanjay; 'The World Bank gave a big loan... to whom? To India. The answer to the question to whom or for whom is the Indirect Object. The Indirect Object is usually a person or place. Exercise: Complete the following sentences adding an Indirect or a Direct Object, as required. 1. The Russians gave. a squadron of M.I.G. fighters. 2. I bought. a present. 3. He threw the beggar. 4. The British Council offered him. 5. The man sent. a message 6. India has promised Nepal. Subject Pattern- 5: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object This order is preferred when the Direct Object is shorter than the Indirect Object, or when the Indirect Object has to be stressed. Subject+ Verb+ Direct Object+ Preposition+ Indirect Object He distributed sweets to all the boys in the class You don't lend books to anybody Don't show the latter to any of your friend He promised the prize to me, not you She bought the present for her mother He made coffee for herself The Tailor made a suit for my brother-in-law Subject Pattern-6: Object Complement: Subject + Verb + Object + Complement Subject Transitive Verb Object Complement The noise drove him mad That case made the lawyer famous He painted the car green We found the house empty Robin thought the plan impracticable

11 We find the cost of living rather than high We consider the matter very important Note: Here the Complement of the Object is an Adjective. Sometimes to be is used before the complement. Subject Transitive Verb Object to be + Complement I consider the plan (to be) unwise Most people supposed him (to be) innocent I have not found such enquiries (to be) useful They have proved themselves trust Event proved him (to be) wrong I knew him to be conscientious Common Errors: (1) I have seen him yesterday (wrong) I saw him yesterday (right) We have lived there till 1960 (wrong) We lived there till (right) (2). 'Where is Ramu?', He has been to Bombay.' (wrong) He has gone to Bombay' (right) He has been to Bombay' means that sometime in the past he went to Bombay and came back. So he knows Bombay; he is not a stranger to Bombay. He has gone to Bombay' implies that he is still in Bombay; hasn't come back yet. (3) We had gone to Bombay two weeks ago (wrong) We went to Bombay two weeks ago. (correct) We had gone to the pictures last night. (wrong) We went to the pictures last night. (correct) Introductory 'There' The most common way of indicating existence in English is by using there + to be. Normally there is an Adverb of Place. But the introductory 'There' has no Adverbial sense and it just used to introduce the sentence: There are two peoples in the room. This may also be written thus: Two peoples are in the room. But normally the first form is preferred, though the subject is two peoples. In the next three sentences we have a peculiar' structure no+ gerund, which indicates impossibility. There's no question of going back on it = It's impossible to go back on it. There's no question of denying the fact = It is impossible to deny. There's no knowing. = It is impossible to know.

12 Note. The expression 'There is no question of denying the fact', 'There is no question of going back on it' etc. is an Indianism which should be avoided. But you can say, Going back on it out of the question. Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences, using no gerund construction: 1. It is impossible to satisfy these people. 2. It is impossible to say what will happen 3. It is not possible to back out of it now. 4. We cannot withdraw from our commitments. 5. The fact cannot be gainsaid that we failed in our duty to these people. 6. It is not possible to retreat from our present position. 7. It is not possible to get over this difficulty. Introductory 'There' Introductory' There' Introductory' There' can also be used with some Intransitive Verbs, or with an Intransitive Verb + to be. There + Verb+ Subject, etc. There seems to be some misunderstanding between them There came a knock at the door There happened to be no one nearby to help her There arose a dispute about the leadership of the party There fell a deep silence upon them There grew a warm friendship between the two There spread a rumor that she was a German Introductory' It' (Provisional Subject) When the subject is an Infinitive Phrase, the sentence often begins with it. Instead of saying, 'To accept your advice is difficult' we say, 'It is difficult to accept your advice'. Infinitive Phrase It + Verb+ Subject Complement+ Infinitive Phrase (Real subject) It is (not) easy to learn English It was (not) difficult to understand his motive It will (not) be pleasant to sit on the beach It may (not) be premature to think of it now It might (not) be advisable to consult specialists It could be dangerous to drive so fast It must be tempting to get such an offer However, when you wish to emphasize the Infinitive Phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially if it is short: 'To err is human, to forgive, divine.' To -become a millionaire was his life-long ambition. To withdraw now will be sheer folly.

13 Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences using Introduction: 1. To buy a car now is not advisable. 2. To invest all your money on land will be foolish. 3. To reveal the deployment of the army units would not be in the public interest. 4. Not to accept the democratic demands of the common would be unwise. 5. To ensure the industrial development of all the States should be possible. 6. Not to control the increase in population would be disastrous. 7. To provide young people with facilities for games and sports is absolutely necessary. 8. To prevent unhealthy activities by encouraging healthy ones would be prudent. 9. To depend so much on foreign aid seems humiliating. 10. To avoid foreign borrowings together appears impracticable. Introductory' It 'in Questions It was Ahmed who broke the window. Who was it that broke the window? It was at 9 A.M. that the postman came. When was it the postman came? It was at Sri Nagar that the Conference met. Where was it that the Conference met? It is because he is ill that he is absent. Why is it that he is absent? You will notice that in the question form the Relative that is frequently omitted. Exercise: Form questions to which the following sentences are the answers; the correct interrogatives are given at the end of each sentence. 1. It was the day before yesterday that I got the telegram. (when) 2. It was because he was poor that he stole the bread. (why) 3. It is in the Durbar Hall that the meeting will be held. (where) 4. It was your fault that the pudding was spoilt. (whose fault) 5. 1t is the President's consent that we have to get. (whose consent) 6. "It is his pen that he is looking for. (what) 7. It was in Kashmir that he spent the summer. (where) 8. It was Rama's dog that was run over. (whose dog) 9. It was last June that I met her for the first time. (when) 10. It is this that I want you to do. (what) 'If' Clause 1. He will do it, if you ask him. (This merely states that something will happen if a certain condition is fulfilled-and the condition is nothing improbable or impossible.) I shall speak to him, if you want. He will accept the post, if it is offered. You will be informed, if the meeting is arranged.

14 2. He would do it, if you asked him. (This states the probable result of an imaginary condition. The possibility of your asking him and his doing it is more doubtful than in you could do it, if you tried. They would help you, if you asked. I should meet him, if he turned up. 3. He could do it, if he were a dictator. (This is the unreal if. It is clear that he is not a dictator and therefore his 'doing it' is impossible.) If I were king of this country, I would make you my queen. If he were twenty years younger, he could perhaps do it. I would do it, if it were possible. Notice a special use of this construction 'were if', 'even if'. If he were the devil himself, I would oppose him. If he were the Emperor of China, he couldn't be more autocratic. Another use of this structure is to give advice or gentle admonition: If I were you, I should accept the offer. I shouldn't provoke the old man, if I were you. 4. He would have done it, if you had asked him. (This is the unreal past. You did not ask him and therefore he did not do it. But one likes to imagine the result, if the condition had been fulfilled, i.e., if you had asked him.) They would have come, if you had invited them. The strike would have been called off, if the workers' demands had been granted. He would have agreed, if you had been more courteous. DETERMINERS: What are determiners? A determiner is used to modify a noun. It indicates reference to something specific or something of a particular type. This function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive determiners, or quantifiers. Determiners vs. pronouns Determiners are followed by a noun. The man This book Some people

15 Subject pronouns ( I, you, he, etc.) and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, etc.) cannot be determiners because they can never be followed by a noun. Types of determiners Articles The definite and indefinite articles are all determiners. Definite article - the Indefinite article - a or an (a is used before a consonant sound; an is used before a vowel sound.) Examples: Close the door, please. I've got a friend in Canada. Demonstratives: There are four demonstrative determiners in English and they are: this, that, these and those Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative pronouns. When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they modify. Compare: This is my camera. (Demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the verb is) This camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the noun camera.) Possessives: Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun following it in order to show possession. Possessive determiners are different from possessive pronouns - mine, his, hers, yours, ours, their. Possessive pronouns can stand alone and are not followed by nouns. Possessive determiners, on the other hand, are followed by nouns. Compare: This is my house. (my is a possessive determiner. It is followed by the noun house which it modifies) Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive pronoun. It is not followed by a noun.) Quantifiers Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify. Examples of quantifiers include: some, any, few, little, more, much, many, each, every, both, all, enough, half, little, whole, less etc.

16 Quantifiers are commonly used before either countable or uncountable nouns. He knows more people than his wife. Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Articles: Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: 1) Indefinite- a, an articles 2) Definite article- the A/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns. We call the definite article and a/an indefinite article. For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Indefinite Articles: A and An "A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example: (i) "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. ii) "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here. Rules for using a or an: It depends on the sound that begins the next worda+ singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sound like 'yoo-zer,' begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle etc. an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred. Ex. A historical event is worth recording. "a/an can be used only with countable nouns.

17 "I need a bottle of water." "I need a new glass of milk." You can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water. Definite Article: The The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: "The dog that bite me, ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bite me. "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. Use of 'The' with countable and uncountable Nouns The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely. "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). The is used before: Names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Ganga, the Pacific ocean, the Arabian Sea. Points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole. Geographical areas: the Middle East, the West. deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Gulf of Mannar, the Iberian Peninsula names of holy books: the Ramayana, the Bible, the Quran. The Guru Granth Sahib. Superlative degrees: the best boy, the richest person. Ordinals: the second player, the sixth rank. Historical buildings: the Parliament, the Taj Mahal. Highest posts: the C.M., the Chairman, the President. Countries in plurals: the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States Mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Andes Names of newspapers: the Times of India, the Hindustan Times. Do not use the before: names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Japan, France. names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies names of continents: Asia, Europe proper noun: Rohit, J.L.Nehru. Omission of Articles: Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, and Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.") Names of sports: volleyball, cricket, hockey, football. Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science Names of colours: red, green. Names of games: cricket, hockey, football. Meals: dinner, breakfast. lunch. But we talk about any specific or special colour, game or meal, we can use 'the' before them.

18 Ex. The red color which you were wearing yesterday was looking beautiful. The lunch which I took at your home that day was very good. Uses of other determiners: To express quantity some is used in affirmative sentences, any in negative sentences. Example: There is some butter in the cupboard. She has bought some pens. I did not give him any butter. She did not by any pens. 'Any' is used in affirmative sentences when it has an emphatic meaning such as; "No matter which or who any fool can do it. Give me a book, any book will do. He will pay any price he is asked to. Some is replaced by any in the following cases (a) In Interrogative Sentences; as, Have you any butter? Did she buy any books? But some may be used in Interrogative sentences when these are equivalent to polite requests; as, Will you give me some sugar? Will you have some more coffee? (b) In Conditional Sentences; as, If there are any oranges in the market, please buy some. (c ) In sentences which are negative or which have a negative idea: as. I didn't see any oranges in the market. Each, every, 'Each' means one of two things or one of any number exceeding two; every is never used in speaking of one of two, but is always used in speaking of some number exceeding two ; as, The two soldiers had each a gun. Five boys stood in each row. Every man wishes to be happy. India expects every man to do his duty. Either, Neither Either has two meanings: (1) one of two, or (2) each of two that is, both Neither is the negative of either and means neither the one nor the other. You can go by either road [by one road or the other]. On either side [both sides] of the road the trees grew. He took neither side [neither this side nor that].

19 Much, many: 'Much' denotes quantity: 'many' denotes number. 'Much' and 'many' may be correctly used in the following cases:- (a) In negative sentences: There isn't much tea in the pot. She hasn't much money. We haven't many books. (b) In general questions to which the answer is "Yes" or "No" : Were there many people present? Has he many friends in the town? (c ) In "whether" or "of' clauses: I wonder whether she has many friends to help her. (d, ) After so as, too and few. Take as much as you want. Don't eat too many sweets. How many do you want? Avoid the use of many and much in affirmative sentences:- There are many books in the library,. (Say instead: There are a lot of books in the library.) He has much money. (Say instead: He has a lot of money or plenty of money.) We have much time, (Say instead : We have plenty of time). Little, a little, the little 'Little' means hardly, any or not much. It has a negative meaning. There was little food in the house. There is little hope of his recovery. A little denotes some at least. It has an affirmative meaning. There is a little hope of her recovery. He has a little money. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. The little denotes the small quantity. It has both a positive and a negative meaning. He wasted the little money he had. It means- 1. The money he had was not much. (Negative) 2. He wasted all the money he had. (Positive) Few, a few, the few 'Few' denotes not many. It has a negative meaning. He has read few books. Few men can keep a secret. Few people are free from faults.

20 'A few' denotes some at least- a certain number, however few. It has a positive meaning. He has a few friends. A few men live a pious life. 'The few' denotes not many. It has both a positive and a negative meaning. The few are rich, the many are poor. He lost the few friends he had. It means- 1. The friends he had were not many. (Negative) 2. He lost all the friends he had. (Positive) Less, fewer 'Less' is used with reference to quantity; 'fewer' with reference to number. This boy weighs no less than forty pounds. He does not sell less than five kilograms of sugar. No fewer than forty soldiers were wounded. No fewer than two thousand people were present there. PREPOSITIONS A preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun or a noun substitute to some other word in the sentence For ex. There is a man in the room. The preposition 'in' shows the relationship between the man and the room Sometimes prepositions cause problems because at some places they can be used interchangeably (He sat on the chair: He sat in the chair), because prepositions are often combined with verbs to create phrasal verbs (to look after someone; to look down on someone), and because a single preposition can be used to express several different ideas. It is important to be aware that some words that have the form of a preposition do not have the same function. The girl read in the library. The boy kicked in the door. Examples: In - in September, in 1985; in a week, in the summer of 1969, in the morning; in a minute; Into - into the room, into the river At - at night, at 6 o'clock; at midnight, at Christmas; at Easter, at the same time On - on Sunday; on 25th of Dec., on Good Friday; on the chair. Upon - upon the table Under - under the table Inside - inside the case, inside car After - after school, after you, after this month. Ago - Before - 6 years ago before Christmas, before you.

21 Between - between Monday and Friday Among - among all the brothers By - by Thursday, by car. During - during the holidays Through - through his sincere efforts, through this company For - for three weeks, for him From... to, From... till/until (two points form a period) - from Monday to Wednesday, from Monday till Wednesday, from Monday until Wednesday. Past - 23 minutes past 6 (6:23) Since - since Monday Up to (not more than a special time) - up to 6 hours a day Within - within a day. Uses of Common Prepositions: Prepositions are used to express a number of relationships, including time, location, manner, means; quantity, purpose, and state or condition. The following outline demonstrates the uses of common prepositions. A. TIME About: He would reach about noon. At: My brother will come at five o'clock. By: The meeting is going to be over by midnight. From: She is on leave from Monday to Friday. Of: It is a quarter of three (15minutes before) by my watch. On: He was born on May 8, Past: It is a quarter past three (15minutes after) by my watch. B. PLACE OR DIRECTION Around: She walked around the car. Down: They lived down the hall. From: We will take it from you. The restaurant is one mile from here. In: He lives in a street. We waited in the bus. Inside: Put it inside the house. Of: We moved to south of Montreal On: We sat on the chair. Through: They drove through the tunnel. To: He went to Pune. Give it to me. Up: He walked up the stairs. With: He went with me. C. MEANS OR AGENT By: He was hit by a ball. She came by train. He did it by hard work. From: His success results from careful planning In: He takes pleasure in it.

22 On: With: D. MANNER By: In: On: With: They live on bread and water. He chased the monkey with a stick. By doing it yourself, you save time. He was left in confusion. The room was in turmoil. I swear it on my word of honor. He ate it with a fork. E. STATE OR CONDITION At: My friend is at work. She is at home. By: They are by themselves (alone). In: He is in a state of confusion. On: He is on duty. For: I mistook you for someone. F. QUANTITY OR MEASURE For: We drove for twenty miles. We bought it for ten cents. By: We bought them by the kilo. G. PURPOSE For: He bought it for an emergency. She went to the city for sightseeing. He loved her for her thoughtfulness. Words followed by appropriate prepositions 1. Please accede to my request. 2. I acted according to his advice. 3. You are angry with me for nothing. 4. She is absorbed in her study. 5. I was accused of theft. 6. You will be admitted to the 10th class. 7. I agree with you on this matter. 8. They did not agree to my proposal. 9. I abstained from food for three days. 10. I do not approve of your proposal. 11. I arrived at the station in time. 12. We should not associate with bad boys. 13. You must apologize to him for your mistake. 14. Is she acquainted with you? 15. I was alarmed of the sight of the snake. 16. He was already aware of his failure. 17. I am not afraid of you? 18. The hunter aimed at the dove. 19. I was amazed (astonished) at his failure. 20. We have an easy access to our headmaster Please attend to your lesson. 22. He is averse to hard work.

23 23. She has an aptitude for music. 24. This book belongs to me. 25. America is bent on going to war with Russia. 26. He is blind in one eye Do not boast of your wealth. 28. I was born of poor parents. 29. You were born in a rich family. 30. Beware of pick-pockets. 31. The dogs bark at the strangers. 32. I never borrow money from anybody. 33. God has blessed us with many talents. 34. He does not care for money. 35. The boys complained to the principal about the food served in the hostel mess. 36. They congratulated me on my success. 37. Never count on anybody's help. 38. I was charged with theft. 39. W was convinced of his honesty. 40. I am conscious of my weakness. 41. The child clings to his mother. 42. I shall call on you tomorrow. 43. He never consulted me in this matter. 44. Our class consists of forty boys. 45. He is confident of his success. 46. He felt a craving for smoking. 47. Compare Akbar with Sher Shah. 48. Life is compared to a bubble. 49. The Bombay Express collided against a goods-train. 50. Sharma's father deals in tea. 51. I have no dealings with him.

24 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT: Although you are probably already familiar with basic subject-verb agreement, this chapter begins with a quick review of basic agreement rules. Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. In the present tense, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways: nouns ADD an s to the singular form; verbs REMOVE the s from the singular form. These agreement rules do not apply to verbs used in the simple past tense without any helping verbs.

25 The agreement rules do, however, apply to the following helping verbs when they are used with a main verb: is-are, was-were, has-have, does-do. The agreement rules do not apply to has-have when used as the SECOND helping verb in a pair. They do NOT apply to any other helping verbs, such as can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must.

26 The subject-verb agreement rules apply to all personal pronouns except I and you, which, although SINGULAR, require PLURAL forms of verbs. The remainder of this teaching unit deals with some more advanced subject-verb agreement rules and with exceptions to the original subject-verb agreement rule Compound Subject The word compound means made up of two or more parts. Two or more words can be compounded or linked by joining them with any of three words: and, or, and nor Here are some examples of compounding:

27 Compound nouns can function as a compound subject. In some instances, a compound subject poses special problems for the subject-verb agreement rule (+s, -s). However, instead of using two sentences (as above), we may choose to give the above information in one sentence. This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined by and), illustrating a new rule about subject-verb agreement. Although each part of the compound subject is singular (ranger and camper), taken together (joined by and), each one becomes a part of a plural structure and, therefore, must take a plural verb (see) to agree in the sentence. SUBJECT-VERB RULE- 1 Two or more singular (or plural) subjects joined by and act as a plural compound subject and take a plural verb (singular + singular = plural). You can check the verb by substituting the pronoun they for the compound subject.

28 Or and nor as joiners work somewhat differently from and. While the word and seems to ADD things together, or and nor do not. They suggest a CHOICE. Look at this sentence. This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined together by or). Each part of the compound subject (ranger, camper) is singular. Even though both words function together as subject (joined by or), the subject still remains SINGULAR (ranger or camper) since a CHOICE is implied. This compound subject, therefore, requires a singular verb to agree with it. SUBJECT-VERB RULE- 2 Two or more SINGULAR subjects joined by or (or nor) act as a singular compound subject and, therefore, take a singular verb to agree. Note: Two or more plural subjects joined by or (or nor) would naturally take a plural verb to agree.

29 However, or and nor can pose a more difficult problem. Thus far we have been working with compound subjects whose individual parts are both either singular or plural What if one part of the compound subject is singular and the other part is plural? What form of a verb should be used in this case? Should the verb be singular to agree with one word? Or should the verb be plural to agree with the other? Solution: 1. If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by and, always use a plural verb.

30 2. If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by or or nor, use the verb form (singular or plural) which will agree with the subject closer to the verb. Group Nouns Some nouns which name groups can be either singular or plural depending upon their meaning in individual sentences. Because they can describe either the individuals in the group (more than one plural), or the group as a single entity (one only singular), these nouns pose special problems.

31 However, there are some guidelines for deciding which verb form (singular or plural) to use with one of these nouns as the subject in a sentence. If we refer to the group as a whole and, therefore, as a single unit, we consider the noun singular. In this case, we use a singular verb. If, on the other hand, we are actually referring to the individuals within the group, then we consider the noun plural. In this case, we use a plural verb. Of course group nouns, like other nouns, can also appear in plural forms (with an s). When used in the plural form, group nouns mean MORE THAN ONE GROUP. Thus, it uses a plural verb.

32 Thus, there are three important subject verb agreement rules to remember when a group noun is used as the subject: 1. Group nouns can be considered as a single unit, and, thus, take a singular verb. 2. Group nouns can be considered as individual members within a single unit and, thus, take a plural verb. 3. Group nouns can be given plural forms to mean two or more units and, thus, take a plural verb. Plural Form / Singular Meaning Nouns Some nouns are regularly plural in form, but singular in meaning. Even though these nouns APPEAR to be plural because they end in s, they actually refer to only one thing made up of smaller, uncounted parts. Therefore, they are considered singular. You can see that substituting that pronoun it instead of they makes more sense here. Another group of plural form nouns end in ics.

33 Similarly, it is a more suitable substitute for any of these words than is they. These nouns appear to be plural (end in s), but generally refer to only one thing and are, therefore, generally considered singular. NOTE: Occasionally, however, the ics nouns can have a plural meaning: We can speak about individual parts of these wholes. In this case, we apply the same rule as applies to group nouns when we consider the individual members within the group (see Section 3.3): We use a plural verb. Note the difference in meaning and, therefore, in the verb chosen (singular or plural) between the two uses of the ics noun, statistics. Indefinite pronouns can pose special problems in subject verb agreement.

34 The difficulty is that some indefinite pronouns sound plural when they are really singular. As subjects, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take singular verbs. Look at them closely. These should be easy to remember. However, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take plural verbs.

35 EXCEPTIONS: A third group of indefinite pronouns takes either a singular or plural verb depending on the pronoun s meaning in the sentence. Look at them closely. So far we have considered subjects that can cause subject-verb agreement confusion: compound subjects, group noun subjects, plural form singular meaning subjects, and indefinite subjects. The remainder of this teaching unit examines subject verb agreement problems that can result from word placement in sentences. There are four main problems: prepositional phrases, clauses beginning with who, that, or which, sentences beginning with here or there, and questions.

36 Here is a list of frequently used prepositions: A prepositional phrase may be placed between the subject and verb.

37 In the above example, the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject boy. Sometimes, however, a prepositional phrase inserted between the subject and verb makes agreement more difficult. Car is the singular subject. Was is the singular helping verb which agrees with car. If we aren t careful, however, we may mistakenly label riders as the subject since it is nearer to the verb than car is. If we choose the plural noun, riders, we will incorrectly select the plural verb were. Solution to the Prepositional Phrase Problem 1. Learn the major prepositions. 2. Be alert for prepositional phrases placed between the subject and verb, and identify the noun in the phrase immediately as the object of a preposition: An object of a preposition can NEVER be a sentence subject. 3. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb which agrees with it.

38 4. Remember the indefinite pronoun EXCEPTIONS considered in Section 3.5, p.18: Some, Any, None, All, and Most. The number of these subject words IS affected by a prepositional phrase between the subject and verb. A clause beginning with who, that, or which and coming BETWEEN the subject and verb can cause agreement problems. Like the prepositional phrase, the who / that / which clause never contains the subject. TO AVOID SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT ERRORS Identify who / that / which clauses immediately.

39 2. Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb that agrees with it. When a sentence begins with there is there are / here is here are, the subject and verb are inverted. After all that you have learned already, you will undoubtedly find this topic a relatively easy one! The verb in such constructions is obviously is or are. The subject, however, does not come BEFORE the verb. Instead, the subject in this kind of sentence comes AFTER the verb, so you must look for it AFTER the verb. In this example, because the subject, book, is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the subject is plural, however, then the verb must be plural.

40 In this example, because the subject, books, is plural, the verb is also plural. Remember: In here is here are / there is there are constructions, look for the subject AFTER the verb and choose a singular (is) or a plural (are) verb to agree with the subject. And finally, sometimes creating a question will cause the subject to follow the verb as well. Here, identify the subject and then choose the verb that agrees with it (singular or plural). A Verb must agree with its Subject in Number and Person, i.e., the Verb should be of the same Number and Person as the Subject. Two or more Singular Subjects joined by and take a Plural Verb; as

41 Mohan and Sohan have passed. He and his brother were absent. He and I are great friends. Time and tide wait for no man. Note - (1) Sometimes two Subjects are regarded as representing one idea, and then the Verb is singular; as, Slow and steady wins the race. Bread and butter is a wholesome food. 'Early to bed and early to rise' makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (2) If two Singular Nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Verb must be, Singular; as. The poet and philosopher is dead. [Here 'Poet' and Philosopher' refer to the same Person.] The orator and statesman has arrived. Note- If the Article is used only once, then the two Nouns refer to the same person, and the Verb used is Singular. But if the Article is mentioned twice, then two distinct persons are intended, and the Verb following must be in the Plural Number; as, The poet and the philosopher are dead. The orator and statesman have arrived. If two Singular Nouns joined by 'and' are preceded by each or every the Verb is Singular; as, Each day and each hour brings us a fresh anxiety. Every man and every woman in the village was terrified. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by or, nor, either or, neither nor, take a Singular Verb; as, Either Mohan or Sohan is in the wrong. Neither Rama nor his brother was present there. Neither iron nor coal is to be found in that country. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect her. Neither he nor I was mistaken. Any boy or girl sees it at once. Note: (1) When one of the Nouns or Pronouns joined by or, nor is in the Singular and the other in the Plural, the Verb should be Plural and the Plural Subject should be placed near the Verb; as, John or his brothers are to blame. Neither Afzal nor his friends were present. (2) If two Subjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the Verb agrees in person with the Subject nearest to it; as, Either you or he is telling a lie. Neither my brother nor I am happy. But it is better to write as-

42 Either you are telling a lie, or he is. Neither is my brother happy, nor am I. If two Nouns are joined by 'with' or as well as', the Verb agrees with the first Noun, i.e., if the first Noun is Singular, the Verb must be Singular, even if the second Noun is Plural; as, Raman, as well as his friend, has won the prize. Iron as well as gold is found in India. Kindness as well as mercy allows it. The King, with all his ministers, was killed. A Collective Noun takes a Singular or Plural Verb according to the sense. If the idea of oneness is expressed, the Verb must be Singular; if the individuals of the collections are thought of, the Verb must be Plural. The jury [= men of the jury] were divided in their opinions. The jury [+ one body] has elected its President. The Council meets today in the Town Hall. The Council, that met in the Town Hall was divided. The multitude was frightened at the sight of the lion. Either, neither, each, every one, many a must be followed by a Verb in the Singular; as, Either of the two applicants is suitable. Neither of the two applicants is suitable. Each of these boys has done his best. Each of these substances is found in India. Each one of these men is reliable. Every one of the boat's crew was drowned. Many a man is tempted by gold. Errors due to Proximity Often the Verb is made to agree in Number with a Noun near it instead of its proper subject. This should be avoided. 1. The behaviour of the children were excellent [Here' were' must be' was' in order to agree with behaviour.] 2. Not one of his lectures has even been printed. [The Subject is one, not lectures; therefore, 'have should be 'has.'] 3. By that time two weeks' salary were due. [Here again, the Subject is salary, not weeks; therefore,' were' should be' was'.] 4. The quality of the mangoes was ( not were) good. 5. The cost of all these articles has (not have) risen. 6. A series of lectures has (not have) been arranged on the subject. 7. A variety of pleasing objects charms (not charm) the eye. When a Plural Noun denotes some specific;: quantity or amount considered as a whole, the Verb is generally Singular; as, Two-third of the city is in ruins (not are). A thousand rupees is a good sum (not are).