Heidi Susanna Astikainen THE RECEPTION OF THE FINNISH SUBTITLES OF SONGS PERFORMED AT THE EUROVISION SONG CONTEST

Transcription

1 UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND PHILOSOPHICAL FACULTY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES English language and translation Heidi Susanna Astikainen THE RECEPTION OF THE FINNISH SUBTITLES OF SONGS PERFORMED AT THE EUROVISION SONG CONTEST MA Thesis November 2018

2 ITÄ-SUOMEN YLIOPISTO UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND Tiedekunta Faculty Philosophical Faculty Tekijät Author Heidi Susanna Astikainen Osasto School School of Humanities Työn nimi Title The Reception of the Finnish Subtitles of Songs Performed at the Eurovision Song Contest Pääaine Main subject Työn laji Level Päivämäärä Date Pro gradu -tutkielma x English Language and Sivuainetutkielma November 13, Translation Kandidaatin tutkielma 2018 Aineopintojen tutkielma Tiivistelmä Abstract Sivumäärä Number of pages 92 pages + Appendix of 16 pages The Finnish subtitles of the Eurovision Song Contest are a combination of many different factors: the restrictions set by the medium, the challenges related to song lyric translation, the persona of the translator and, as a consequence, translation solutions characteristic of Finnish Eurovision subtitles. The combined effect of these factors creates a unique viewing experience in its own right. The aim of this thesis is to explore how viewers of the Eurovision Song Contest receive its Finnish subtitles and what kind of viewing and reception experience is caused by the combined effect of the aforementioned factors. In this thesis, the reception of subtitles is approached from a holistic point of view, similar to that adopted in the study by Tuominen (2012): the subtitles are an inseparable part of a multimodal entirety comprised of image, sound and text, the elements of which all in part affect the viewing experience and, as a consequence, reception. The reception of the subtitles was examined with the focus group method. A total of nine informants took part in the study. The informants were assembled into two groups: the first group consisted of fans of the Eurovision Song Contest, whereas the members of the second group were more casual followers of the contest. Both groups watched the same video, approximately 25 minutes in length, compiled of eight entries that took part at the 2017 Eurovision Song Contest Grand Final. After watching the video, the participants discussed their opinions and viewing experiences in a focus group setting with the lead of the present author, who acted as the moderator in the discussions. Based on the focus group discussions, the subtitles were regarded to be useful, entertaining and funny, but also annoying, unreliable and of questionable quality. The informants paid particular attention to the translation of onomatopoetic elements, individual word choices and timing in the subtitles. The imbalance between the different elements of the multimodal product was also brought up in the groups: at times the subtitles steered attention away from the performance and the song, at times the contrary was true. Although the informative function of the subtitles and the support they gave to the mood of the song were seen as important, understanding the original song lyrics through the subtitles was seen in a negative light in cases where the translation highlighted flaws in the source text that could have been left unnoticed otherwise. However, in general the attitudes toward the subtitles were either positive or neutral. Avainsanat Keywords Audiovisual translation, subtitles, reception research, Eurovision Song Contest

3 ITÄ-SUOMEN YLIOPISTO UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND Tiedekunta Faculty Filosofinen tiedekunta Tekijät Author Heidi Susanna Astikainen Osasto School Humanistinen osasto Työn nimi Title The Reception of the Finnish Subtitles of Songs Performed at the Eurovision Song Contest Pääaine Main subject Työn laji Level Päivämäärä Date Sivumäärä Number of pages Pro gradu -tutkielma x Englannin kieli ja kääntäminen Sivuainetutkielma Kandidaatin tutkielma Aineopintojen tutkielma sivua + liite, 16 sivua Tiivistelmä Abstract Eurovision laulukilpailujen suomenkielisissä tekstityksissä yhdistyy monta tekijää: julkaisuvälineen asettamat rajat, laululyriikan kääntämiseen liittyvät haasteet, kääntäjän persoona ja sitä kautta suomenkielisille Euroviisutekstityksille ominaiset käännösratkaisut. Näiden tekijöiden yhteisvaikutus luo omalla tavallaan erittäin uniikin katselukokemuksen. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää, miten Eurovision laulukilpailun katsojat vastaanottavat sen suomenkielisiä tekstityksiä ja millainen katsomis- ja vastaanottokokemus syntyy edellä mainittujen seikkojen yhteisvaikutuksesta. Tekstitysten vastaanottoa lähestytään tässä tutkielmassa kokonaisvaltaisesta näkökulmasta, samaan tapaan kuin Tuomisen (2012) tutkimuksessa: tekstitykset ovat erottamaton osa multimodaalista, kuvan, äänen ja tekstin yhdessä muodostamaa kokonaisuutta, jonka kaikki elementit osaltaan vaikuttavat katsomiskokemukseen ja sitä kautta reseptioon. Tekstitysten vastaanottoa tutkittiin fokusryhmämenetelmän avulla. Tutkimukseen osallistui yhteensä yhdeksän henkilöä, jotka jaettiin kahteen ryhmään. Ensimmäinen ryhmä koostui Eurovision laulukilpailun faneista, kun taas toisen ryhmän jäsenet olivat kisan satunnaisempia seuraajia. Kumpikin ryhmä katsoi saman kahdeksasta Eurovision laulukilpailuun 2017 osallistuneesta kilpailukappaleesta koostetun noin 25 minuutin mittaisen videon. Videon katsomisen jälkeen osallistujat keskustelivat näkemyksistään ja katselukokemuksistaan fokusryhmätilanteessa moderaattorin ohjaamana. Fokusryhmäkeskustelujen perusteella tekstitykset nähtiin hyödyllisinä, viihdyttävinä ja hauskoina, mutta myös ärsyttävinä, epäluotettavina ja laadultaan kyseenalaisina. Informantit kiinnittivät tekstityksissä erityistä huomiota onomatopoieettisten elementtien käännöksiin, yksittäisiin sanavalintoihin ja ajastukseen. Ryhmissä nousi esille myös multimodaalisen kokonaisuuden eri elementtien epätasapaino: toisinaan tekstitykset veivät huomion pois esityksestä ja laulusta, toisinaan päinvastoin. Vaikka tekstitysten tietoa välittävä ja kappaleen tunnelmaa tukeva funktio koettiin tärkeinä, alkuperäisen laulutekstin ymmärtäminen käännöksen kautta nähtiin myös negatiivisessa valossa sellaisissa tapauksissa, joissa käännös toi sellaiset lähtötekstin heikkoudet ilmi, jotka olisivat muuten saattaneet jäädä huomaamatta. Yleisesti suhtautuminen tekstityksiin oli kuitenkin joko positiivista tai neutraalia. Avainsanat Keywords AV-kääntäminen, tekstitykset, reseptiotutkimus, Eurovision laulukilpailu

4 Table of contents 1 Introduction Audiovisual translation Subtitling Restrictions and conventions of subtitling Opera surtitling Characteristics and translation of song lyrics Characteristics of song lyrics Translating song lyrics Reception research and reader-oriented perspectives Reader-oriented perspectives in Translation Studies Previous research on the reception of audiovisual products by real readers Focus groups The Eurovision Song Contest in general and its Finnish subtitles Party for everybody: the ESC in a nutshell Subtitling the ESC in Finland Material Methods Planning the focus group discussions Background information questionnaires Study preparations and execution Analysis of the focus group discussions Group 1: ESC fans The group discussion Individual profiles of the ESC fans Summary: ESC fans Group 2: casual viewers of ESC The group discussion Individual profiles of the casual viewers of the ESC Summary: casual viewers of the ESC Comparison of the two groups and discussion Conclusion References Appendix 1: Invitation questionnaire Appendix 2: Translated invitation questionnaire Appendix 3: Focus group discussion questions and discussion outline Appendix 4: Translated focus group discussion questions and discussion outline Appendix 5: Consent form Appendix 6: Translated consent form Appendix 7: Background information questionnaire Appendix 8: Translated background information questionnaire

5 1 Introduction In this MA thesis, I explore the reception of the Finnish subtitles of the Eurovision Song Contest (abbreviated ESC from now on). The ESC is an annual televised music competition which has been running since 1956 (O Connor 2005: 8). Hence, the contest was awarded the Guinness World Record for the longest-running annual TV music competition on its 60th anniversary in 2015 (Escudero 2015). The ESC has retained its popularity for decades; for instance, EBU reported that the 2017 shows were watched by approximately 182 million people around the world (Jordan 2017b), whereas the Grand Final accumulated the average viewer count of 525,000 in Finland alone (Finnpanel Oy 2017b). The ESC has been broadcast on Finnish television since 1960 (Murtomäki 2007: 8), and the practice of subtitling the competing songs into Finnish begun in 1971 (ibid.: 66). Although subtitling is a very common practice in Finland and audiovisual translation as a research subject has been highly popular since the 90s, the study of the reception of subtitles has only recently attracted interest within Translation Studies. Moreover, the focus of the present study will be on the song lyrics, the translation of which is deemed challenging by many. In addition, the translated song lyrics are produced in the context of subtitles, which entails a number of aspects to consider. Lastly, despite the fact that the ESC has great cultural significance and is an important part of many people s lives, it has gone largely unnoticed in the field of Translation Studies. This is perhaps because subtitling the ESC is a unique phenomenon in its own right: according to Siitonen (2014: 2), subtitling the contest occurs only in Finland and Estonia. A few studies on the Finnish ESC subtitles have been carried out, however: these include studies by Siitonen (2014), Astikainen (2016) and Haapalainen (2017). In other words, the Finnish subtitles of the ESC are a combination of several differing aspects that make them fascinating from a Translation Studies point of view. The aspects of interest include the multimodality of the medium (see Section 2) and the restrictions set by the medium (see Section 2.2), the challenges of translating song lyrics (see Section 3.2), the persona and translation style of the subtitler and how they affect the translation solutions (see Section 6.2) and the number and diversity of languages present at the contest. The combined effect of these different aspects certainly creates a unique viewing experience in its own right. So, the question is: what kind of holistic viewing experience the viewers of subtitled ESC entries have due to the combined, multimodal effect of these aspects and how is it affected by the Finnish subtitles in particular?

6 Thus, the aim of my research project is to examine how people receive the Finnish subtitles of the songs performed at the ESC. However, when examining the reception of the subtitles, the subtitles should not be treated as if they exist in a vacuum; when people watch the contest, all the elements of the multimodal audiovisual product are present, and thus it is only natural that viewing experience is affected by the original audio track of the song, the performance and the Finnish subtitles. Thus, while the focus of the present study is on the Finnish subtitles to the songs performed at the ESC, I plan to consider the whole multimodal audiovisual experience of watching the program instead of focusing on a single micro-level phenomenon of the subtitles outside of their natural environment. This approach is similar to the one employed in Tuominen s (2012) study, which has also served as a source of inspiration for the present study. In other words, my research questions are as follows: 1. What kind of attitudes do the viewers have towards the Finnish subtitles of the ESC? Are their views on the Finnish subtitles positive, negative or neutral? What aspects of the subtitles do they pay particular attention to, if any? 2. How does the presence of the Finnish subtitles affect the viewer s viewing experience? 3. How does the level of familiarity with the contest affect the viewers attitudes towards the Finnish subtitles of the ESC? How do the views of different groups differ? The reception of the subtitles was studied by holding two viewing sessions of selected performances from the Grand Final of the ESC 2017 with their Finnish subtitles, accompanied by a questionnaire and small focus-group interviews afterwards. The members of the groups participating in the study were chosen based on their familiarity with the ESC. While the focus of the study is on the Finnish subtitles of the songs, the subtitles are not studied disconnected from their context. The informants were free to talk about observations and comment on aspects of the show that are not directly related to the Finnish subtitles, but which had an effect on the viewing experience as a whole. The analysis of the focus group discussions is mostly qualitative in nature. It should be specified that the term Finnish ESC subtitles in the context of this thesis refers only to the subtitles to the songs performed at the contest, unless otherwise stated. While the focus of the present study will be on the translation of song lyrics in an audiovisual context and using such a concise term for simplicity s sake is thus appropriate, it should be noted that the songs are not the 2

7 only aspect of the show that is subtitled into Finnish for example, various pre-scripted presenting sections are also subtitled into Finnish during broadcast. My reasons for choosing this topic of research are numerous. To begin with, I have been following the ESC since 2006, growing more and more fond of the contest each passing year. While I have no musical background to speak of, I have always found music to be an important aspect of my life, and each year I discover new songs and artists to listen to thanks to the ESC. Furthermore, the Finnish subtitles have always been one of the highlights of the contest for me, and the more fascinated I became of the intricacies of (audiovisual) translation, the more I begun to pay attention to the subtitles and appreciate them for a variety of reasons. In addition, I explored the translation solutions of Finnish ESC subtitles in my BA thesis (Astikainen 2016) and wished to continue on a similar topic for my MA thesis. This thesis is structured as follows: First, previous literature on the topics of audiovisual translation (Section 2), characteristics and translation of song lyrics (Section 3) as well as reception study and reader-oriented approaches in Translation Studies (Section 4) will be summarized. In addition, the usage of focus groups as a research method is illustrated in Section 5. The ESC in general as well as its Finnish subtitles are explored in Section 6. Next, in Sections 7 and 8, the material and methods of the present study will be overviewed. Then, in Section 9, the focus group settings will be presented, along with individual profiles for each of the informants as well as observations made based on the discussions, comparing and contrasting the two different focus groups. Lastly, the conclusions of the study will be presented in Section 10. 3

8 2 Audiovisual translation As explained by, for instance, Herkman (2001: 12), the term audiovisual refers to modes of communication where a message is relayed both visually and aurally. In turn, according to Díaz Cintas (2010: 344), the term audiovisual translation (or AVT) refers to all translation which includes auditory and visual elements alongside written text. In other words, both the source text and the translation are audiovisual texts that encompass not only the verbal and aural dimensions but also verbal and non-verbal modes of communication. As Zabalbeascoa (2008: 24) describes, also referring to the works by Delabastita (1989), Chaume (2000), and Sokoli (2000), audiovisual texts thus have four possible elements: spoken words (combining the verbal and aural modes), written words (combining the verbal and visual modes), other sounds, such as music and special effects (combining the non-verbal and aural modes) and the picture (combining the non-verbal and visual modes). Thus, by definition, audiovisual translation is multimodal: as it encompasses aural, visual and written material, it fits the description of multimodality, which Kress and van Leeuwen (2001: 20) define as the use of several semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product or event. For instance, dubbing, voice-over translation and subtitling as well as opera surtitling and the translations of video games are types of audiovisual translation (see e.g. Oittinen and Tuominen 2007: 11). As the present research project deals with subtitling, this specific field of audiovisual translation will be explored in the following sub-sections. First, subtitling as a practice will be discussed in Section 2.1, after which the conventions and restrictions related to subtitling will be detailed in Section 2.2. Then, in Section 2.3, opera surtitling, a field of audiovisual translation closely related to subtitling, which ties into the subtitling of song lyrics, will be examined. 2.1 Subtitling According to Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007: 8), subtitling is defined as a translation practice that consists of presenting a written text, generally on the lower part of the screen, that endeavours to recount the original dialogue of the speakers, as well as the discursive elements that appear in the image (letters, inserts, graffiti, inscriptions, placards, and the like), and the information that is contained on the soundtrack (songs, voices off). The term subtitles, on the other hand, refers to the texts which represent what is being said on the screen (Ivarsson and Carroll 1998: 4). In other words, subtitling is the practice, whereas subtitles are the product of said practice. 4

9 The definition of subtitling by Díaz Cintas and Remael is broad, and for a reason: subtitles can be classified in many different ways depending on the criteria. Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007: 13 25) describe the following criteria: linguistic parameters, time available for preparation, technical parameters, methods of projecting subtitles and distribution format. The criterion of linguistic parameters is the one of particular interest here, as the present study deals with a specific type of subtitling. The classification based on linguistic parameters illustrated by Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007: 13 18) differentiates between intralingual, interlingual, and bilingual subtitles. The first type of subtitles, intralingual subtitles, are in the same language as the original speech (ibid.: 14). These kinds of subtitles are, for instance, targeted towards the deaf or the hard-of-hearing or used for the purposes of teaching or learning a language (ibid.: 14 16). On the contrary, in interlingual subtitling the original message in one language is translated into another language; these subtitles are targeted towards the hearing audience (ibid.: 17). Lastly, bilingual subtitles, as the name suggests, deploy two different languages at the same time and are typically employed in regions where two different languages are used (ibid.: 18); for instance, in the case of cinema subtitles in Finland a country with two official languages, Finnish and Swedish, one line of the subtitles is in Finnish, whereas the other one is in Swedish (see e.g. Hartama 2007). However, the term subtitles is used in the context of the present study to refer only to intralingual subtitles. It is important to distinguish between the different types of subtitling and be aware of their existence, although the focus of the present study will be on only one of those types. Furthermore, according to Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 11), subtitling tends to be the favored form of audiovisual translation in smaller language areas because of its relatively cheap expenses and costeffectiveness in contrast to dubbing. Indeed, Finland is one of these so-called subtitling countries (see e.g. Vertanen [2007: 149]). As discussed in Luova (2010: 5), subtitling foreign television programs started in Finland in the late 1950s at the Finnish Broadcasting Company (Yleisradio, abbreviated Yle from now on; known as Suomen Televisio at the time) and the decision to use subtitling over dubbing was made on the basis of cost. In other words, subtitles in the context of this study are essentially a way of transmitting spoken information from one language (the source language or SL) into a written format in another language (the target language or TL) accompanied by the original visual and aural material. Because of this, subtitles are bound by certain restrictions related to space and time. The guidelines related to working 5

10 with these restrictions discussed in Vertanen (2007) are particularly relevant to the present study, because Vertanen bases his observations on his work as a subtitler at Yle; the ESC is usually broadcasted in Finland on Yle TV2 channel. The Finnish subtitling conventions will be discussed in the following Section Restrictions and conventions of subtitling Because of the mode in which subtitles are relayed accompanied by the original visual and aural material there is a number of restrictions and conventions differing from most other modes of translation that a translator must take into account when producing subtitles. This section will explore these restrictions and conventions, particularly from a Finnish point of view as the present research deals with Finnish subtitles, primarily based on Vertanen s (2007) article. The observations and views of Ivarsson and Carroll (1998) will be presented as well. In addition, the special characteristics of Finnish ESC subtitles as identified by Haapalainen (2017) will be examined. As explained in an article by Vertanen (2007: 151), only a certain amount of text can be visible on a television screen at a given time. This is because the text has to be simultaneously big enough to read and small enough so that it does not cover the accompanying image too much. Thus, a spatial restriction is ever-present, which means that both the number of lines and characters per line are limited. Vertanen (2007: 151, 155) notes that the maximum number of lines visible on screen simultaneously is two and that the character limit on Yle channels including the Yle TV2 channel, which usually broadcasts the ESC was 33 characters per line, at least back when he wrote his article. Lång (2013: 57) notes that the subtitling guidelines he received from Yle for the purposes of his study mention the spatial restrictions, but Lång does not specify whether or not the exact character limits per line on Yle channels have changed since Vertanen s article. The other restricting factor of subtitles is related to time. Vertanen (2007: 152) states that the time which a subtitle is visible on screen has to be synchronized with the speed and rhythm of the auditory material, e.g. the speech of the people speaking in a program. On the other hand, Vertanen (2007: 151) also notes that the average viewer should be given enough time to both read and understand the subtitles. According to Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 82) this process of defining the in and out times of each subtitle is known as timing, spotting or cueing; the term timing is used to refer to this practice in the present study. Taking the rhythm of the auditory material and the average reading speed as well as the length of the subtitle lines into account, Vertanen (2007: 151) states that a one-line subtitle 6

11 should be visible on screen for two to three seconds, whereas for a two-line subtitle the corresponding time is four to five seconds. Thus, subtitles are temporary in nature: they are visible for only a brief amount of time and it is not always possible for the viewer to go back and read subtitles that they have missed. However, the average reading speed and the rhythm of the auditory material are not the only factors that dictate the timing of the subtitles. Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 64) explain that when you watch a subtitled film or television programme there is a great deal more for the eye (and brain) to absorb than just the subtitles. - - [U]nder normal circumstances the viewer wants to see what is happening on the screen and it takes the eyes about a third of a second every time they dart to or from a subtitle. We also obtain a certain amount of information aurally even if we do not understand the language spoken, and this might well be a further distraction, especially if our eyes and ears are receiving conflicting or diverging information. In other cases, of course, aural information can help reinforce the message of the subtitle. In other words, the multimodal nature of subtitled audiovisual material affects the way it is viewed, received and interpreted. Because of the restrictions related to space and time detailed above, as Vertanen (2007: 152) observes, it is only natural that everything that is uttered in a program cannot possibly fit into the subtitles. Thus, the translator has to include only the most important parts of the source text in the subtitles, and consequently omit parts that are either self-evident or not essential for the viewer to be able to follow the program. Subtitles, by nature, lack some of the information that is present in the original source text, and the information can only be understood when the subtitles are on screen on just the right moment and for a long enough period of time, so that the viewer has enough time to read them and knows at all times whose speech they represent (ibid.: , translation HA). Vertanen (2007) also points out that in addition to the aforementioned restrictions, the medium in which subtitles are broadcast affects the conventions related to the making of subtitles. For instance, Vertanen (2007: 154) emphasizes that a subtitle should be a logical whole that can be easily understood without the need to re-read, as the viewer rarely has the chance to do so. When this is not possible to achieve in a single two-line subtitle, Vertanen (ibid.) instructs that the text should be divided into several subtitles and the subtitler has to make sure that each subtitle still is logical, coherent and easy to understand. Other conventions Vertanen (2007) mentions in his article are related, but not limited, to punctuation, the use of informal language, swearing and italics, how to subtitle written text visible on the screen, and how the change of speaker is signaled within the 7

12 subtitles. Some of these conventions, namely punctuation and the use of informal language, shall be briefly explored here, as they are relevant in the context of the subtitles used in the present study. Vertanen (2007: 153) discourages the use of slang and dialects in subtitles. He (ibid.) stresses that subtitles should be easily understood without the need to re-read them; using these forms of nonformal language can hinder the viewer. Thus, standard language is usually preferred in subtitles. In addition, punctuation in subtitles, as in any other formal writing, should follow the rules of the target language. As observed by Vertanen (2007: 154), this is also true in the case of Finnish subtitles. However, in the context of the ESC, the subtitled material consists of songs, and the rules do not have to be as strictly followed. As Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 121) note, when subtitling songs, translators can take greater typographical liberties compared to other kinds of texts this includes, among other liberties, minimal use of punctuation marks. The Finnish subtitles of the ESC mostly either lack punctuation marks and capital letters altogether or their usage is not consistent with Finnish grammar rules (see e.g. Siitonen ). While Vertanen does not comment on the subtitling of song lyrics in his article, Ivarsson and Carrol bring forward another convention related to the subtitling song lyrics aside from punctuation: the use of rhymes. Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 121) note that when watching a program with subtitled songs, [t]he audience can read only one subtitle at a time, and intricate rhyming schemes will often be missed since the rhymes will normally only be noticed if they occur in both lines of the same subtitle or if they are repeated at least three times. The conventions described here mostly relate to subtitling both fictitious and factual programs that feature speech, for instance dialogue. However, the Finnish subtitles of the ESC are far from the everyday, prototypical television program subtitles, as the subtitled material consists of song lyrics. In her MA thesis (2017), Haapalainen examined the role and visibility of the Finnish subtitler of the ESC, seeking reasons for the translation choices employed in the subtitles as well as exploring how the subtitles correlate with existing subtitling conventions such as those considered in this Section. The research material of Haapalainen s study consists of not only ESC subtitles made by Niemi over the years, but also an interview with the subtitler in question. Haapalainen (2017) identified the following special characteristics for the Finnish subtitles of the ESC by Kalle Niemi: translating vocables and onomatopoeia; sayings and other creative word choices; translating weird ESC songs; and the challenges of live subtitling. According to Haapalainen (2017: 37), these elements increase the translator s visibility in the subtitles. Thus, Haapalainen s perspective to translator s visibility is what Koskinen (2000: 99) refers to as textual visibility the ways in which the translator makes 8

13 his or her presence visible on the textual level, in the translation itself. These characteristics identified by Haapalainen and their relations to the restrictions and conventions of subtitling will be further explored here. The first special characteristic identified by Haapalainen is translating vocables and onomatopoeia. Haapalainen does not provide definitions for these terms, so other sources are used here to explain them: according to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (n.d.), vocable is a word composed of various sounds or letters without regard to its meaning, whereas according to the Oxford Online Dictionary (n.d.), onomatopoeia refers to both [t]he formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named (e.g. cuckoo, sizzle) and [t]he use of onomatopoeia for literary effect. Haapalainen (2017: 37 41) sees that the decision to retain these elements in the subtitles or coming up with a new element with a similar effect is what makes this translation strategy stand out, as seeing these kinds of elements subtitled at all is rare outside the context of the ESC. This could thus be seen as a defiance of the subtitling convention of making a subtitle a logical whole that can be easily understood without the need to re-read due to their rarity, retaining vocables and onomatopoetic elements in the subtitles could be seen as an aspect that makes it more difficult for the viewers to assimilate the information present in the subtitles. Haapalainen s second category is sayings and other creative word choices. First of all, Haapalainen (2017: 42 43) notes that Finnish ESC subtitles sometimes use informal, spoken Finnish and archaic Finnish words in order to relay the message or the mood present in the original lyrics and song. These translation solutions were also used in Haapalainen s research material in cases where the source text does not technically incite a creative translation, but the translator has chosen to make one anyway (translation HA) (ibid.: 37). These kinds of translation solutions can be seen as breaking the existing conventions of subtitling, which, as was noted earlier, dictate that a more formal way of speaking is preferred (Vertanen 2007: 153). Furthermore, Haapalainen (ibid.: 41, 44 45) notes that non-standard translation solutions employed in the subtitles can be a means of highlighting the sometimes campy, over-the-top and festive nature of the ESC as a whole. Lastly, Haapalainen (ibid.: 47 48) observes that unique word choices in the subtitles could also be chosen for the purposes of rhyming as well as a means for the subtitler to be creative. Indeed, the subtitler Niemi himself comments in an interview (U 2010) that coming up with rhymes is the aspect that he finds the most enjoyable when subtitling songs for the ESC. However, Niemi (ibid.) notes that the original rhyming scheme cannot always be followed in the subtitles, if by doing so the rhyme pairs are not visible on screen at the same time; this is also the concern Ivarsson and Carroll (1998: 121) have when they discourage the use of rhymes in subtitles. To my mind, the use of rhyming in itself is a characteristic 9

14 of Finnish ESC subtitles and could have been a category in its own right. This is supported by the findings in the study by Siitonen (2014: 98), which will be discussed in Section 6.2. The third special characteristic of Finnish ESC subtitles identified by Haapalainen relates to the translation of weird ESC songs. The aforementioned campy and over-the-top nature of the ESC sometimes affects the lyrics of the songs competing in the contest, occasionally resulting in weird, peculiar and outright bad lyrics. As Haapalainen (ibid ) observes, in these cases the lyrics are usually translated word-for-word, which increases the visibility of the translator (and, in my opinion, the translation as well) as the subtitles make the content of the original lyrics overt to the viewers. On a related note, in his talk at the 2011 Kääntäjienpäivä seminar (reported in Bruun 2011: 6), Niemi notes that the lifting of the language rule has had an effect on the quality of the original lyrics and thus has affected his translations. Here Niemi refers to the official ESC rule, abolished in 1999, which stated that the language in which the song is performed is restricted to the country s official language(s) (see e.g. O Connor 2005: 157). The way I see it, Niemi criticizes non-native lyricists for not producing English lyrics of acceptable quality which then causes the Finnish subtitles to decline in quality as well. Not only are the usual restrictions of subtitling and the special characteristics of song lyric translation (see Section 3.2) ever-present, but also the timing of the subtitles poses its own challenge. This is the final characteristic of Finnish ESC subtitles identified by Haapalainen: the challenges of live subtitling (2017: 50 52). To elaborate, due to the live nature of the contest, its Finnish subtitles are inserted as the contest itself is being broadcast (Bruun 2011: 6, U 2010), whereas under prototypical television subtitling circumstances, the subtitler defines when the subtitles appear on and disappear from the screen in advance instead of doing it as the program is being broadcast. This live subtitling practice employed with Finnish ESC subtitles, however, should not be confused with live or real-time subtitles (also known as online subtitling) as defined in Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007: 19), where the subtitling process itself is performed live, i.e. at the same time as the original programme is taking place or being broadcast as opposed to pre-prepared subtitles (also known as offline subtitling) which are done after the programme has been shot and some time ahead of its broadcasting or release. While the timing of the subtitles is done live, the subtitler has prepared the translations and subtitle breaks in advance, as Niemi explains in an interview with the Finnish blog on audiovisual translation Täällä on ihminen välissä! (U 2010); Niemi mostly makes the subtitles based on an English version of the lyrics provided to him together with the original lyrics, if the song is performed in a language other than English, and any last-minute modifications to the subtitles are 10

15 based on the final dress rehearsals of the contest. Thus, Finnish subtitles of the ESC fall in between Díaz Cintas and Remael s categories: the translator makes the subtitles in advance (as in offline subtitling), but the subtitles are inserted during the program is being broadcast (as in online subtitling). As the subtitles are prepared beforehand but inserted on the screen live during the program, this practice is not only similar to that of opera surtitling (as was discussed in Section 2.3), but also is the way television subtitles were cued in the early years of television broadcasts (see. e.g. Ivarsson and Carroll 1998: 21). All in all, subtitles are a restricted mode of translation by nature. They always have to be adapted to the restrictions of the medium and the target language s conventions. However, according to Vertanen (2007: 151), by taking the various restrictions and conventions described here into account making sure that the subtitles are in sync and agreement with the aural and visual material accompanying them it is possible to achieve a set of subtitles that the viewer does not even consciously notice reading. Vertanen (ibid.) describes this as the viewer being under an illusion that they can understand the source language. The subtitler can, however, deliberately make decisions that makes the translation visible, as demonstrated by the list of special characteristics of Finnish ESC subtitles established by Haapalainen (2017). In the end, as with any other mode of translation, the principal function of subtitle is simple: to relay a message from one language into another. As Vertanen (2007: 169) puts it: a viewer does not turn on their television to read subtitles, but to watch the program (translation HA). 2.3 Opera surtitling The practice of opera surtitling is similar to how the ESC is subtitled in many regards, despite the genres of the songs generally being quite different 1, so the topic will be explored here. Virkkunen (2007: 244) defines opera surtitling as the phenomenon in which an opera is performed in its source language and the audience can read the target-text translation in real time on a screen that is situated either over the stage or on the armrests of the seats. This shift from the verbal-auditory-visual and non-written text, i.e. the operatic performance, to the verbal-visual, written text, i.e. the surtitles (Virkkunen 2007: 253), is what makes opera surtitling a mode of audiovisual translation. While the topic will be explored from the point of view of opera surtitling, as the translation of song lyrics is a 1 Of course, performing operatic songs and opera-inspired pieces at the ESC is not completely unheard of. For instance, a video titled Genres at Eurovision Part IV: Opera (Eurovision Song Contest 2017), uploaded on the official YouTube channel of the ESC, highlights some of them. 11

16 key concept in the context of the present study, it should be noted that, as Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007: 25) point out, that while surtitles were developed for the opera, they are employed in other types of live performances as well. The first similarity between opera surtitles and Finnish ESC subtitles is the fact that the conventions followed in opera surtitling are similar to those of subtitled television programs (Virkkunen 2001: 256; Ivarsson and Carrol 1998: 20; Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007: 25). In a manner similar to subtitles, opera surtitles are tied to the aural and visual material accompanying them as well as restricted by the medium in which they are relayed. The rhythm of the performance alongside the assumed reading speed of the audience dictate the tempo at which the surtitles show up and disappear (Virkkunen 2007: 257), whereas the limited space in the surtitle display itself dictates the length, form and content of each individual surtitle (ibid.: 255, 257). Virkkunen (2007: 258) also notes that opera surtitles, due to their restrictive medium, not only prefer concise expressions but also word choices that are easy to read and understand akin to the guidelines presented by Vertanen (2007) in the context of television subtitles (see Section 2.2). The purpose of opera surtitles is the same as subtitling any other audiovisual material: as Virkkunen (2007: 244) notes, opera surtitles exist to make it easier for the viewers to understand the original material in this case, the opera performance that is in a different language than the translation. Furthermore, unlike some other forms of song lyric translation, Virkkunen (2001: 75) also specifies that Finnish opera surtitles are not made to be sung; this marks yet another similarity between opera surtitles and ESC subtitles. According to Virkkunen (2001: 10 11), opera translations are prepared in advance, based on the libretto, the music and the stage directions, and are inserted on the screen in real time by a translatorsubtitler, who is watching the performance. A similar practice is in use in subtitling the ESC into Finnish (see Section 6.2). The extent to which the translator can take the performance into account is, however, quite different in opera surtitling and ESC subtitling. As mentioned in Section 6.2, the Finnish subtitler of the ESC mostly makes the subtitles based on an English version of the lyrics provided to him alongside the original lyrics, if the song is performed in a language other than English (U 2010). Any last-minute modifications to the subtitles are based on the final dress rehearsals of the contest (ibid.). On the other hand, Virkkunen (2001: 73) highlights that opera surtitles are more strongly tied to the context and what is happening on the stage rather than to the source text. Thus, the translator-subtitler has to pay close attention to the performance as a whole in order to make certain that the surtitles not only are inserted on the screen at the precisely right moment (Virkkunen 12

17 2001: 68 69) but also accurately represent the meanings relayed in the performance that may not be detailed in the score or libretto (Virkkunen 2001: 74). All in all, the opera translation process begins from the early stages of production. According to Virkkunen (2007: ), the producing process of surtitles starts with the first draft when the rehearsals have not even started, and both the timing and the content of the translation are further modified as the production goes along. As a result, as Virkkunen (2007: 246) puts it, the outcome is a translation wherein each surtitle is tied to the temporal restrictions set by the music and the activity on stage and which retells the content of the portrayals on stage (translation HA). Consequently, Virkkunen (2001: 74) remarks, quoting Vallisaari (1996: 955), that usually a set of opera surtitles is produced for a certain production. Virkkunen (2001: 74 75) also refers to Oittinen s (1995: 142) views when explaining that while the source material for two operas may be the same, the surtitles produced for one may not work with the other. Virkkunen (2001: 66 67; 2007: ) further notes that following and interpreting opera surtitles is not as intuitive and easy as following television subtitles. The first reason for this is the fact that opera surtitles are not super-imposed on the image unlike television subtitles; instead, the viewer has to look away from the performance itself to be able to read the surtitles on the screen, wherever it is situated. In addition, watching an opera performance and a television program are two completely different experiences: an opera stage is larger compared to a television screen and thus there can be great deal more for the viewer to focus on, but noticing smaller details is more difficult. Thus, as Virkkunen (2001: 67) remarks, the timing of the surtitles is crucial, making it possible for the viewers to pay attention to both the performance and the surtitles. To summarize, the similarities between opera surtitling and subtitling ESC songs into Finnish can be observed to be as follows: both are forms of audiovisual translation where the original auditive material is represented in a written medium in another language; both translations are prepared in advance; both translations are synchronized live; both deal with the translation of song lyrics; both have to take the restrictions and conventions of their respective mediums into account, which share many similarities; and neither translation is made to be sung to the melody of the original performance. 13

18 3 Characteristics and translation of song lyrics Since the research material of the present study is closely tied to the translations of song lyrics, relevant topics related to song lyrics will be explored in this section. First, in Section 3.1, the special characteristics of song lyrics will be examined, mostly based on the writings by Salo (2007). Then, in Section 3.2, the topic of translating songs and song lyrics will be explored: first, some difficulties in song lyric translation will be explained, after which two models on song lyric translation will be illustrated: first the one discussed by Franzon (2008) and then the one brought forward by Low (2005). 3.1 Characteristics of song lyrics Finnish songwriter Salo (2007: 35 37) notes that, although poetry is closely related to song lyrics and modern written poetry originates from oral tradition performed by singing, he sees song lyrics as its own genre, distinct from other literary genres. Despite the similarities between poetry and song lyrics Salo (ibid.: 37) depicts both as short, dense, ambiguous and figurative texts (translation HA) Salo (ibid.: 42 46) draws attention to some major differences: the level of independence, the relationship with music, the medium and its temporal restrictions or the lack of them, and the relationship with language. The first difference between poetry and song lyrics is, according to Salo (2007: 45), the fact that a poem is independent (translation HA) and does not require anything else, whereas song lyrics are part of a whole, a song. Salo (ibid.: 42) describes a song as a marriage of language and music, in which these two aspects come together to present a specific thought (translation HA). Thus, Salo sees that a song has two elements: the language and the music. However, Franzon (2007: 376) regards a song as having three parts: the music, the lyrics and the performance: A song can be defined as a piece of music and lyrics in which one has been adapted to the other, or both to one another designed for a singing performance. Both Franzon and Salo agree that the definition of a song includes music. Thus, a related difference between poetry and song lyrics is in the way they link to music. Salo (2007: 45) observes that a poem can pursue musicality by the means of language (translation HA) and thus try to mimic music (translation HA), whereas song lyrics are always closely tied to the accompanying music and its rhythmic structure. According to Salo (ibid.: 47 49), the musical aspects of the song greatly influence 14

19 the lyrics: for instance, the number of notes and their lengths in the melody affect the number and lengths of the syllables in the lyrics; the pitch and volume of the notes in the melody influence the singability of vowels and consonants in the lyrics; the genre of the composition and the arrangement guide the content and style of the lyrics, and so forth. Salo (ibid.: 42) also notes that poetry is more free-form than song lyrics in the sense that the same melody structure is often repeated in different parts of a song (for instance, the verses have the same melody) and thus restricts the lyrics, whereas this repetition is generally not required in a poem. There are, of course, always exceptions to this. The relation between the lyrics and the music in a song is also explored by Low (2017), who defines two types for vocal songs based on the purpose the lyrics have in the song: logocentric songs, where the lyrics of the song can be deemed to hold more importance than the music, and musico-centric songs, where the musical dimension matters more than the lyrics (Low 2017: 10). In Low s (ibid.: 12) opinion, the songs most worth translating are logocentric ones, those that might be too shallow without the verbal dimension. According to Low (ibid.: 12), logocentric songs cannot be valued based on their melody alone the lyrics hold so much significance compared to the music that a listener who does not understand the language is unable to fully appreciate the work whereas on the other hand musico-centric songs certainly have less difficulty in crossing language borders, as their melody is the focal point of musico-centric songs and understanding the language of the lyrics is not as necessary as in logocentric songs. Logocentrism and musico-centrism are, of course, two opposing extremes of a continuum: a song can not only fall anywhere in the spectrum between the extremities, but also feature both logocentric and musico-centric sections (ibid.: 10, 12). Salo (2007: 43 46) also explores the difference in the medium of poetry and song lyrics. Whereas poetry is mainly meant to be read, song lyrics are meant to be heard, which also restricts the structure and length. Song lyrics are more temporally restricted than poetry, since the way song lyrics are performed is acoustic and thus the listener has only one chance to interpret the lyrics (unless they are able to replay the song somehow), but the reader of a poem can spend an unlimited amount of time reading a poem. Furthermore, as discussed by Virkkunen (2007: 252) in the context of opera translation, interpreting song lyrics is not as easy as interpreting everyday speech. Virkkunen (ibid.: 252) points out two reasons for this: the characteristic lyricism of song lyrics, and the fact that songs usually have a slower pace than speech. In consequence, performing a song as well as interpreting it takes more time than if the same amount of words was spoken (ibid.: 252, translation HA). Many of the characteristics of songs noted on here are identified as potential difficulties when translating song lyrics from one language into another. The translation of song lyrics, the challenges 15