French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource

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1 Contents Nouns Introduction to Nouns... 4 number: singular, plural... 6 Gender: Masculine, Feminine... 8 Voila vs. il y a Temps, heure, fois Determiners Introduction to Determiners Determiners: Definite Articles definite articles with physical characteristics Determiners: Indefinite Articles determiners: partitive articles Possessive Determiners demonstrative determiners determiners: expressions of quantity tout indefinite determiners Adverbs Introduction to Adverbs adverbs: formation and placement placement of adverbs with passé compose comparative and superlative of adverbs il y a, ago tôt, tard, en avance, en retard, à l'heure Adjectives Introduction to Adjectives Adjective vs. adverb Adjectives: Formation and Placement Adjectives that proceed the nour ordinal numbers: beau, nouveau, vi eux Irregular adjectives Adjectives whose meaning varies with placement Comparisons with adjectives comparative adjectives i ndicating more or l ess irregular adjectives Superlative of adjectives Bon/meilleur vs. bien mieux Participles as adjectives Verbs Introduction to Verbs er verbs (regular) present tense er verbs (stem changing) present tense ir verbs (regular) present tense ir verbs (irregular) like ouvrir present tense ir verbs (irregular) partir, sortir, and dormir re verbs (regular) re verbs (irregular) like prendre re verbs (irregular) like mettre re verbs (irregular) like suivre and vivre... 68

2 etre to be avoir to have Avoir expresions aller "to go" faire "to do, to make" faire expressions Venir 'to come' Boire, croire, and voir savoir vs. connaître present tense dire, lire, and écrire present tense Pronominal verbs Modal verbs - vouloir, pouvoir and devoir Impersonal verbs & expressions: faut, il est important partir, sortir, quitter and laisser infinitive constructions Causative faire transitive vs. intransitive Present participle Negation Introduction to Negation Basic Negation: ne... pas alternate forms (1) ne... jamais, rien, personne, etc alternate forms (2) ne... aucun, ni... ni, que one-word negative sentences si, jamais, etc Introduction to Prepositions common prepositions contractions of à and de with definite article depuis vs. il y a... que, ça fait... que, and voilà... que depuis with imperfect depuis, pendant, pour: 'for' Prepositions with Places prepositions with infinitives Pronouns Introduction to Pronouns Subject Pronouns c est vs il/elle est disjunctive pronouns Direct object pronouns pronoun y Pronoun en Indirect object pronouns Order of object pronouns present tense Indefinite pronouns demonstrative pronouns possessive pronouns relative pronouns: qui and que Relative pronouns: ce qui, ce que Relative pronouns: dont, où, etc. present tense Conjunctions Introduction to conjunctions coordinating conjunctions

3 subordinating conjunctions Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice Intro to Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice present tense recent past (venir de + infinitive) passé composé with avoir passé composé with etre future: usage futur antérieur imparfait: states of being, habitual actions imparfait: idiomatic uses narration: passé composé vs. imparfait plus-que-parfait passé simple passé antérieur futur proche regular subjunctive irregular subjunctive subjunctive usage: obligation subjunctive usage: doubt subjunctive usage: will, emotion, desire conjunctions that take the subjunctive past subjunctive subjunctive summary ways to avoid the subjunctive Conditional Past Conditional si clauses Reported Speech in the Present Reported Speech in the past Active vs. passive voice Interrogatives Introduction to Interrogatives Yes/No Questions: est-ce que, n'est-ce pas Questions with subject/verb inversion Interrogative and Exclamative: quel interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronoun lequel Interrogative words: où, quand, comment

4 Nouns Introduction to Nouns page: no1 A noun is essentially a label for places, things, events, ideas, concepts and so on. Like English, nouns in French may be categorized as common or proper, count or mass, singular or plural. However, unlike English, French nouns are also categorized as either masculine or feminine. common vs. proper Common nouns in English and French are the generic term for something. Common nouns are never spelled with a capital letter unless they begin a sentence. un tatou an armadillo Proper nouns are specific names and thus begin with capital letters. Tex et Tammy Tex and Tammy count vs. mass Another way of classifying nouns is according to whether they can be counted or not. Count nouns identify individual entities that can be counted, like armadillos. un tatou, deux tatous one armadillo, two armadillos In contrast, a mass noun refers to an entity as an uncountable unit. In the following example, the bread that Tex is eating is conceived of as a mass, that is, an undefined quantity. Tex mange du pain. Tex is eating bread. The difference between count and mass nouns is usually clearcut. However, something that is typically countable such as an animal (one armadillo, two armadillos, three armadillos) can nevertheless be conceived of in terms of a mass, as in the following tasteless example. Berk! Il y a du tatou écrasé partout sur les autoroutes du Texas. Yuck! There's squashed armadillo all over the Texas highways. singular vs. pl ural All nouns in French and English are marked for number, that is, for singular (one) or plural (more than one). French, like English, usually indicates plurality by adding an -s to the end of the base form, the singular noun. Count nouns have both singular and plural forms: le tatou, les tatous the armadillo, the armadillos 4

5 Mass nouns typically have only a singular form. Try saying the plural forms of the following English mass nouns: sewage, mucus, plasma. It sounds strange doesn't it? This shows that it is difficult to pluralize a mass noun. mascul i ne vs. femi ni ne In English, grammatical gender is based on biology and is only relevant for pronouns (he, she, it) and possessive determiners (his, her, its). Gender in French, on the other hand, affects all nouns, pronouns, adjectives and articles. A noun's gender is indicated by the article that precedes it. Masculine nouns are preceded by le and feminine nouns by la. The use of articles in French is more widespread than in English. le garçon la fille the boy the girl Unlike English, the grammatical concept of gender in French has little to do with biological sex. Therefore, inanimate objects such as tables and desks are categorized as either masculine or feminine (there is no neuter gender in French grammar). la table (feminine) le bureau (masculine) the table the desk Remember that gender in French, for the most part, is not about sex, but is simply an arbitrary category. The terms 'masculine' and 'feminine' really mean nothing more than 'noun class A' and 'noun class B'. Because grammatical gender is fairly arbitrary, it is essential to memorize a noun's gender along with its spelling and pronunciation. 5

number: singular, plural page: no2 In French, a noun is always either singular or plural. It is usually introduced by a determiner, which reflects the number of the noun.

6 number: singular, plural page: no2 In French, a noun is always either singular or plural. It is usually introduced by a determiner, which reflects the number of the noun. regular plural formation As in English, the plural is formed by adding an -s to the singular form of the noun. Note, however, that the -s is not pronounced. In spoken language, the determiner is often the only indication that a noun is singular or plural. Tex est un tatou. Tex et Tammy sont des tatous. Tex is an armadillo. Tex and Tammy are armadillos. nouns ending in -s, -x, -z in the singular Nouns ending in -s, -x, or -z do not change in the plural. For example: Tex a un long nez. Les tatous ont toujours de longs nez. Joe-Bob est un écureuil. Les écureuils adorent les noix. Joe-Bob mange au moins une noix par jour. Bette est une chatte. Les chats mangent des souris. Estce que Bette a jamais mangé une souris? Tex has a long nose. Armadillos always have long noses. Joe-Bob is a squirrel. Squirrels adore nuts. Joe- Bob eats at least one nut every day. Bette is a cat. Cats eat mice. Has Bette ever eaten a mouse? nouns ending in -al, -ail, -au, -eu, -eau, -ou in the singular Nouns ending in -al, -ail, or -au in the singular end in -aux in the plural. For example: Edouard est un animal distingué. Corey et Fiona ne sont pas des animaux, ce sont des insectes peu sociables! Edouard is a distinguished animal. Corey et Fiona are not animals. They are unsociable insects! There are a few exceptions: un bal (ball, dance), des bals; un carnaval (carnival), des carnavals; un festival (festival), des festivals; un récital (recital), des récitals. Nouns ending in -eu or -eau in the singular add -x in the plural. For example: Edouard n'a pas un seul cheveu. Bien sûr, c'est un escargot! Mais Tammy a les cheveux longs. C'est une tatou extraordinaire! Edouard does not have one single hair. Of course, he's a snail. But Tammy has long hair. She's an extraordinary armadillo! Nouns ending in -ou end in -oux in the plural: un bijou (jewel), des bijoux un caillou (stone, pebble), des cailloux un chou (cabbage), des choux un genou (knee), des genoux un hibou (owl), des hiboux un pou (louse), des poux 6

7 Exceptions include: un clou (nail), des clous; un sou (money), des sous; un trou (hole), des trous. irregular plurals Some nouns have an alternate form in the plural: un oeil (eye), des yeux Madame (Madam), Mesdames Monsieur (Sir), Messieurs Mademoiselle (Miss), Mesdemoiselles Note that some nouns follow the regular rule of plural formation but are pronounced differently in the plural. For example, the - f is pronounced in the singular, but not in the plural. un oeuf (egg), des oeufs un boeuf (steer), des boeufs un os (bone), des os Corey: Dis Bette, tu as déjà mangé unesouris? Bette: Oh oui! J'aime les souris! Et aussi les rats, les oiseaux, les lézards. Je ne mange jamais de végétaux, mais quelquefois des insectes... Corey: Des insectes! Allez, au revoir. Corey: Bette, have you ever eaten a mouse? Bette: Oh yes! I love mice! And rats, birds and lizards too! I never eat plants, but sometimes insects... Corey: Insects! Alright, bye-bye. 7

Gender: Masculine, Feminine page: no3 In French, a noun is always feminine or masculine. It is introduced by a determiner, which usually indicates the gender of the noun.

8 Gender: Masculine, Feminine page: no3 In French, a noun is always feminine or masculine. It is introduced by a determiner, which usually indicates the gender of the noun. people When a noun refers to a person, the gender is determined by the person's sex (although some exceptions do exist). In general, the feminine form of the noun is formed by adding an -e to the masculine noun. Note that the addition of the -e changes the pronunciation in some words: Joe-Bob est étudiant, Tammy est aussi étudiante. Tex est ami avec Joe-Bob, Tammy est aussi amie avec Joe-Bob. Joe-Bob is a student, Tammy is a student. Tex is Joe-Bob's friend, Tammy is also Joe- Bob's friend. There are cases when the feminine form of the noun changes more drastically. Edouard: Je suis serveur. Tammy: Je ne suis pas serveuse. Trey: Je suis musicien. Tammy: Je ne suis pas musicienne. Edouard: I'm a waiter. Tammy: I'm not a waiter. Trey: I'm a musician. Tammy: I'm not a musician. Tex: Je suis un séducteur. Bette: Je suis une séductrice. Joe-Bob: Pour le travail, je ne suis pas champion. Fiona: C'est moi qui suis championne. Tex: Je suis le copain de Tammy. Tammy: Je suis la copine de Tex. Tex: I'm a womanizer. Bette: I'm a seductress. Joe-Bob: I'm not a champion at working. Fiona: I'm the one who is a champion. Tex: I'm Tammy's pal. Tammy: I'm Tex's pal. In general, when the masculine noun ends in -e, the feminine noun remains unchanged. Only the determiner or the context indicates if it is a feminine or masculine noun. Tex et Rita sont frère et soeur, mais ils ont des métiers tout à fait différents. Tex est poète. Rita est secrétai re. Tex n'est sûrement pas secrétaire et Rita n'est pas poète non plus. Tex and Rita are brother and sister, but they have completely different jobs. Tex is a poet. Rita is a secretary. Tex is certainly not a secretary and Rita is not a poet either. 8

9 animals The gender of animals is often arbitrary. Some animals are always masculine (un escargot, a snail), others are feminine (la fourmi, ant). However, for some animals there are irregular masculine and feminine forms. le chat / la chatte, cat le chien / la chienne, dog le coq / la poule, chicken (rooster / hen) le boeuf, le taureau / la vache, ox / bull / cow objects and ideas The gender of nouns referring to things and abstractions is arbitrary. However, it can often be inferred from the ending of the word. Typically, words ending in -age, -ment, -eau, -phone, -scope, -i sme are masculine and those ending in -tion, -sion, -té, -ette, -ance, -ence, -ie, -ure, -ode/-ade/-ude are feminine. masculine endings le fromage (cheese) le monument (monument) le sentiment (feeling) le couteau (knife) le téléphone (telephone) le microscope (microscope) le romantisme (romanticism) feminine endings la salade (salad, lettuce) la fourchette (fork) la télévision (television) la culture (culture) la situation (situation) la société (society) la différence (difference la philosophie (philosophy) Tammy présente Tex pour la première fois à Bette et Fiona. Tammy: Tex est un ami de Lyon. C'est un tuteur maintenant! Tex, la minette c'est mon amie Bette, et la fourmi c'est ma copine Fiona. Bette et Fiona sont étudiantes. Bette: Enchantée, Tex! J'adore la culture française. Tex: Ah, donc tu,... tu aimes l'existentialisme? Bette: Euh, oui, bien sûr, Tex. Tammy introduces Tex for the first time to Bette and Fiona. Tammy: Tex is a friend from Lyon. He is a tutor now! Tex, the kitty is my friend Bette and the ant is my pal Fiona. Bette and Fiona are students. Bette: Nice to meet you, Tex. I adore French culture. Tex: Ah, so you,... you like existentialism? Bette: Uh, yes, of course, Tex. 9

10 Voila vs. il y a page: no4 Il y a and voi là are two ways of introducing nouns. They are translated into English as 'there is / there are' or 'here is / here are.' il y a Il y a + noun usually indicates the existence of a person or a thing in the context of a particular setting. It is commonly translated as 'there is' or 'there are.' For example: A Austin, il y a une grande université. Dans cette université, il y a plusieurs animaux qui parlent le français! Parmi ces animaux, il y a des tatous, un escargot, une chatte, un écureuil, et plusieurs insectes! Attention! In Austin, there is a big university. At this university, there are several animals who speak French! Among these animals, there are armadillos, a snail, a cat, a squirrel, and several insects! Careful! The negation of 'il y a' is il n'y a pas, 'there is / are not'. You will also find these forms: il n'y a plus, 'there is /are not anymore', il n'y a j amais, 'there is/are never'. A Austin, il n'y a jamais de neige. Donc parmi ces animaux francophones, il n'y a pas de pingouin! In Austin, there is never any snow. So, among these French- speaking animals, there is no penguin! The verb avoir in the expression il y a may be conjugated in any tense or mood, for example, in the past (il y avai t, 'there was') or in the future (il y aura, 'there will be.') voilà/voici Voilà + noun and voi ci + noun are commonly translated as 'here is/are'. They are used to indicate the sudden appearance of something or someone, to introduce people or ideas. Alternating between voi ci and voi là is common when referring to more than one item. Tammy montre le campus à Tex: Voici la bibliothèque et voi là la célèbre tour! Tammy is showing the campus to Tex: Here is the library, and there is the famous Tower. Tex: Oui, oui... Tex: Yes, yes... Tammy présente Tex: Tex, voi ci Joe-Bob et Corey... et voilà Edouard qui arrive. Joe-Bob: Bonjour, Tex. Corey: Salut, Tex. Tammy introduces Tex: Tex, here is Joe- Bob and Corey... and there comes Edouard. Joe-Bob: Hello, Tex. Corey: Hi, Tex. Tex: Oh, la, la, de vrais Texans... Tex: Oh, la, la, real Texans... 10

11 Temps, heure, fois page: no5 There are three nouns in French, temps, heure, and fois, which are translated as 'time' in English, but each has very specific uses and nuances. temps Temps can mean either 'time' or 'weather' (in which case it is almost always accompanied by the verb faire). Tex téléphone à Paw-Paw. Paw-Paw: Tex, tu es où? Tu es en retard! Tex telephones Paw-Paw. Paw-Paw: Tex, where are you? You are late! Tex: Mais non, j'ai le temps! Je suis en train de faire ma valise. Quel temps fait-il à Opelousas? Tex: But no, I have time! I'm packing my suitcase. What's the weather like in Opelousas? Temps is usually singular but may be used in the plural, especially in the following phrases: Paw-Paw: Tex, tu es un petit-fils ingrat! Tu ne viens jamais me voir! Les temps changent... Tex: Allons Paw-Paw, tu sais bien que je viens aujourd'hui. 'Laissez les bons temps rouler', comme on dit en Louisiane! Dis, tu sais que personne ne connaît cette expression en France? Paw-Paw: Tex, you're an ungrateful grand-son! You never come to visit me! Times change... Tex: Oh, Paw-Paw, you know I'm coming today. 'Let the good times roll', as they say in Louisiana! Do you know that nobody knows this expression in France? Here are the most commonly used phrases with temps: De temps en temps, Tex va voir Paw-Paw à Opelousas le week-end. Paw-Paw parle tout le temps de ses rhumatismes. Il prend son temps. Paw-Paw parle souvent du bon vieux temps: De mon temps, les jeunes étaient polis... From time to time, Tex goes to see Paw-Paw in Opelousas on the week-end. Paw-Paw talks about his rheumatism all the time. He takes his time. Paw-Paw often talks about the good old days: In my days, young people were polite... La plupart du temps, Tex s'ennuie. Il a l'impression de perdre son temps. Pendant ce temps, Tammy, Edouard et Joe-Bob sont à Austin. Ils ont le temps de faire la fête. Pauvre Tex! Il rentre à Austin le lundi matin, juste à temps pour faire cours. Most of the time Tex gets bored. He feels like he is wasting his time. In the meantime, Tammy, Edouard and Joe-Bob are in Austin. They have time to party. Poor Tex! He comes back to Austin on Monday morning, just in time to teach. 11

heure Heure is feminine and can be used in the singular or in the plural. It is used to refer to clock time. Tammy: Tex, tu as l'heure? Tex: Oui, j'ai l'heure. Tammy: Et bien?! Quelle heure est-il?

12 heure Heure is feminine and can be used in the singular or in the plural. It is used to refer to clock time. Tammy: Tex, tu as l'heure? Tex: Oui, j'ai l'heure. Tammy: Et bien?! Quelle heure est-il? Tex: Il est 4 heures. Tammy: Chouette! C'est l'heure d'oprah, mon émission préférée! Tex: Et pour moi, c'est l'heure de faire la sieste! Tammy: Tex, you got the time? Tex: Yes, I've got the time. Tammy: Well?! What time is it? Tex: It is 4 o'clock. Tammy: Great! It's time for Oprah, my favorite show! Tex: And it's time for me to take a nap! fois Fois is feminine and its singular and plural forms are identical. It is used to refer to one or several instances of an event. Tammy: Tex, réveille-toi! Paw-Paw est au téléphone, il veut te parler. Tex: Comment? Il a appelé quatre fois aujourd'hui! Tammy: Cette fois, il est déprimé. Sois gentil, il a trois fois ton âge. Tex: Bon, bon, j'y vais, mais c'est la dernière fois! Tammy: Tex, wake up! Paw-Paw is on the phone, he wants to talk to you. Tex: What? He has called four times today! Tammy: This time, he is depressed. Be nice, he is three times your age. Tex: Ok, ok, I'm going, but it is the last time! 12

Determiners Introduction to Determiners page: det1 A determiner is a word that determines or qualifies the meaning of a noun by expressing such concepts as quantity or definiteness.

13 Determiners Introduction to Determiners page: det1 A determiner is a word that determines or qualifies the meaning of a noun by expressing such concepts as quantity or definiteness. There is never more than one determiner per noun and it is always placed before the noun. Determiners always agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. Articles are the main group of determiners in French. There are three categories of articles: definite, indefinite, and partitive. Definite articles (le, la,les) are used when the noun is specific. They are all translated as 'the' in English. Le serveur donne la carte des vins à Tex. The waiter gives the wine list to Tex. Indefinite articles (un, une, des) introduce nouns that are not specific. They are translated as 'a' or 'an' in English. Tex choisit un vin. Tex chooses a wine. Partitive articles (du, de la, del') are used to introduce mass nouns, that is nouns that are conceived of as a mass of indeterminate quantity. They are usually translated as 'some' in English. Tex boit du vin. Tex drinks some wine. Demonstrative determiners (ce, cet, cette, ces) point out something, typically something within sight. They may be translated in English as 'this', 'that','these', 'those' depending on the number (singular or plural) and proximity (near or far) Tex explique: Ce bassin est Barton Spring. Cette piscine s'appelle Deep Eddy. Tex explains: This pool is Barton Springs. This swimming pool is Deep Eddy. Possessive determiners (mon, ma, mes, etc.) indicate ownership or possession like 'my', 'your' 'his', 'her', 'our', 'their'. Tex présente sa famille: Voici mon frère Trey, ma soeur Rita avec ses enfants et leur chien Fido. Notre famille est formidable. Tex introduces his family: Here is my brother, Trey, my sister, Rita with her children and their dog Fido. Our family is great. 13

14 Determiners: Definite Articles page: det2 forms In French, few nouns can stand alone. Most need to be introduced or 'determined' by an article. As in English, an article is characterized as either definite ('the') or indefinite ('a', 'an'). In addition, French articles are also masculine or feminine, singular or plural, according to the gender and number of the noun they determine. Here are the definite articles in French: Masculine singular: le (l') Feminine singular: la (l') Masculine and feminine plural: les Tex le tatou Joe-Bob l'écureuil Bette la chatte l'université du Texas les tatous les écureuils les chats les universités Tex the armadillo Joe-Bob the squirrel Bette the cat (female) The University of Texas the armadillos the squirrels the cats the universities élision and liaison In the examples above, note that le and la both become l' when they precede a noun beginning with a vowel or a silent h: l'escargot, l'université. This is called elision. Unlike le and la, les does not have a contracted, reduced form. When les is followed by a word starting with a vowel, the normally silent final s of les is pronounced, making a /z/ sound. This additional sound linking two words is called liaison. Compulsory liaison with a vowel or silent h No liaison with a consonant les insectes les animaux les hommes les tatous les fourmis Note that elision and liaison occur with most words starting with h: l'homme, les hommes, l'hiver, les hivers. Exceptions to this rule are words beginning with an aspirate 'h'. to identi fy a speci fi c noun The definite article is used to identify a specific noun or to refer to a noun that has already been specified. Tex adore les croissants. Joe-Bob préfère les doughnuts. Tammy n'aime pas le café. Edouard apprécie la bonne cuisine française. Tex loves croissants. Joe-Bob prefers doughnuts. Tammy does not like coffee. Edouard appreciates good French cuisine. 14

to express general truths or concepts French uses the definite article to express general truths or concepts. English, in contrast, uses no article at all.

15 to express general truths or concepts French uses the definite article to express general truths or concepts. English, in contrast, uses no article at all. Compare the :following sentences Tex: L'argent ne rend pas l'homme heureux! Tammy: Tu as raison. L'amour et la santé sont plus importants! Tex: Bien sûr, pour les insectes et les animaux, l'argent n'existe pas! Mais l'amour est aussi important pour nous que pour les humains. Ah oui... l'amour l'amour, toujours l'amour! Tex: Money does not make man happy! Tammy: You are right. Love and health are more important! Tex: Of course, for insects and animals, money does not exist! But love is as important for us as it is for humans. Ah, yes, love, love, love, always love! to express li kes and di sl i kes The French also use the definite article with verbs of preference, such as ai mer, préférer, détester. Once again, English omits the article in such general statements. For example: Tex adore les croissants. Joe-Bob préfère les doughnuts. Tammy n'aime pas le café. Edouard apprécie la bonne cuisine française. Tex loves croissants. Joe-Bob prefers doughnuts. Tammy does not like coffee. Edouard appreciates good French cuisine. to i ndi cate habi tual recurrence The definite article is used in French with moments of the day, days of the week, and seasons to indicate habitual recurrence. For example: Le matin, Tammy va en cours. L'après-midi, elle va à la bibliothèque. Le lundi, Tex fait son jogging. L'été, il se baigne avec Tammy à Barton Springs. L'hiver, il skie à Purgatory. Purgatory. Every morning, Tammy goes to class. Every afternoon, she goes to the library. On Mondays, Tex goes for a jog. Every summer, he bathes with Tammy at Barton Springs. Every wi nter, he skis in 15

16 in a series The article is usually repeated in a series, in contrast to English. For example: Tammy: Tex, aide-moi à mettre la table! Apporte les assiettes, les couteaux, les verres, les serviettes et le vin. Tex, help me set the table! Bring the plates, knives, glasses, napkins, and wine. no article Cities usually do not require an article in French. For example: Tex habite à Austin. mais il préfère Paris. Tex lives in Austin, but he prefers Paris. Continents, countries, states, regions, and oceans usually require an article (l'afrique, la France, le Texas, la Bourgogne, l'atlantique etc.), but there are a few exceptions, usually islands: Haïti, Israël, Madagascar. See prepositions with place names for more information. Months never require an article: janvier, février, mars, etc. Cependant Tex adore mars à Austin. Nevertheless Tex adores March in Austin. Days of the week do not require an article in instances where they do not indicate habitual recurrence. For example: Lundi, il a rendez-vous avec Tammy. Monday he has a date with Tammy. Tammy: J'aime beaucoup le français. C'est la langue de Molière et de Hugo, et surtout c'est la langue maternelle de Tex! Bette: Alors comme ça Tammy, tu aimes bien les Français? Tammy: Oh oui! Surtout les Français qui portent le beret! Tammy: I like French a lot. It is the language of Molière and of Hugo, and above all it is the mother tongue of Tex! Bette: So Tammy, you really like French men? Tammy: I sure do! Especially French men who wear a béret! 16

17 definite articles with physical characteristics page: det3 The definite article (le, la, l', les) is often used with parts of the body instead of a possessive determiner (mon, ma, mes, etc.). Sentences with this structure always use the verb avoir to indicate that the possessor is the subject of the sentence. The following French sentences are equivalent. Tex rêve: Ah, Tammy! Tu as les yeux brûlants, labouche pulpeuse, les cheveux si doux... Tex rêve: Ah Tammy! Ton regard est brûlant, tabouche pulpeuse, tes cheveux si doux... Tex is dreaming: Ah Tammy! You have fiery eyes, full lips, such soft hair... Tex is dreaming: Ah Tammy! Your eyes are fiery, your lips full, your hair so soft.. However, an indefinite article is used if an adjective comes before the part of the body: Tex continue: Tammy, tu as un petit nez pointu et de grandes oreilles décollées... Tex continues: Tammy, you have a little pointed nose and big ears which stick out

18 Determiners: Indefinite Articles page: det4 forms In French, few nouns can stand alone. Most need to be introduced or 'determined' by an article. As in English, an article is characterized as either defi ni te ('the') or indefinite ('a', 'an'). In French, articles are also masculi ne or feminine, and si ngul ar or pl ural, according to the gender and number of the noun they determine. Here are the indefinite articles in French: masculine singular: un feminine singular: une plural: des Tex est un tatou. Joe-Bob est un écureuil. Bette est une chatte. UT est une université des tatous des écureuils des chats des universités Tex is an armadillo. Joe-Bob is a squirrel. Bette is a cat.(female) UT is a university. (some) armadillos (some) squirrels (some) cats (some) universities uses As the English 'a' 'an' or 'some', the indefinite articles un, une, des refer to nouns which are non-specific. Un or une may also indicate quantity, 'a' or 'an' in the sense of 'one.' Contrast the use of the indefinite and definite articles in the first two sentences below. The indefinite plural des is always expressed in French, but its English equivalent 'some' is often omitted. Joe-Bob et Corey ont une chambre dans une résidence universitaire à Austin. Ils ont la chambre numéro 1735 dans la résidence Jester. Joe-Bob et Corey sont des camarades de chambre. Joe-Bob and Corey have a (one) room in a residence hall in Austin. The have the room #1735 in the Jester residence hall. Joe-Bob and Corey are roommates! 'de' after the negati ve In a negative sentence, the indefinite articles un, une, des are replaced by de or d': Tex: Joe-Bob, tu as un chien? Joe-Bob: Mais non! Je n'ai pas de chien. Je suis un écureuil. Tex: Corey, tu as des amis? Corey: Mais non! Je n'ai pas d'amis. Je suis un cafard. Tex: Joe-Bob, do you have a dog?' Joe-Bob: No, I don't have a dog. I'm a squirrel. Tex: Corey, do you have friends? Corey: No, I don't have any friends. I'm a cockroach. 18

However, following the verb être, the indefinite articles un, une, des remain unchanged in the negative: Edouard: Joe-Bob, c'est un écureuil. Ce n'est pas un tatou! Tex et Tammy, ce sont des tatous.

before a plural adjective Before a plural adjective which precedes a noun, des usually becomes de. If the adjective comes after the noun, des does not change to de.

19 However, following the verb être, the indefinite articles un, une, des remain unchanged in the negative: Edouard: Joe-Bob, c'est un écureuil. Ce n'est pas un tatou! Tex et Tammy, ce sont des tatous. Ce ne sont pas des escargots. Edouard: Joe-Bob is a squirrel. He is not an armadillo. Tex and Tammy are armadillos. They are not snails. before a plural adjective Before a plural adjective which precedes a noun, des usually becomes de. If the adjective comes after the noun, des does not change to de. Edouard: Tex et Tammy sont de charmants amoureux. Bette: Ah bon? Ce ne sont pas seulement de bons amis? Edouard: Tex and Tammy are charming lovers. Bette: Really? They are not just good friends? Edouard: Tu ne trouves pas que Tex et Tammy sont des tatous Edouard: Don't you think that Tex and Tammy are parfaits l'un pour l'autre? armadillos who are perfect for each other? Bette: Absolument pas! Bette: Absolutely not! wi th adj ecti ves of professi on, nati onal i ty, and rel igion Professions, nationalities and religions are considered adjectives in French and need no article after the verbs être and devenir. Edouard: Tex devient professeur; il est américain; il Edouard: Tex is becoming a professor. He is American. He is n'est pas catholique. not Catholic. Bette et Tammy parlent entre femmes. Bette and Tammy are talking woman-to-woman. Bette: Je n'ai pas de véritables amis! Tout le monde Bette: I have no real friends! Everybody thinks that pense que je suis une méchante chatte. I am a wicked cat. Tammy: Mais non Bette! Toi et moi nous sommes de Tammy: That's not true Bette! You and I are old vieilles amies! friends!' Bette: Oui, mais toi tu as un petit ami tandis que moi je Bette: Yes, but you have a boyfriend whereas I n'ai pas de petit ami! don't have any boyfriend! Tammy: Tu sais Bette, avoir un petit ami ce n'est pas Tammy: You know Bette, having a boyfriend is not toujours une partie de plaisir, surtout quand il s'appelle always a fun thing, especially when he's called Tex! Tex! 19

20 determiners: partitive articles page: det5 forms There are three partitive articles in French. Masculine: du du pain (some) bread Feminine: de la de la viande (some) meat Masculine or feminine before : de l 'de l 'ail (m.) (some) garlic ( a vowel: de l' de l'eau (f.) (some) water uses Partitive articles are used both in English and in French to express quantities that cannot be counted. While the indefinite article (un, une, des) is used with countable quantities (un oeuf, deux oeufs...), the partitive article is used before mass nouns, nouns that are indivisible or uncountable. In English the article 'some' is often omitted. Edouard: Comme dessert, nous avons de la mousse au chocolat, de la glace parfumée à la vanille et du sorbet à l'ananas. Edouard: For dessert, we have (some) chocolate mousse, vanilla ice cream, and pineapple sorbet. While the definite article designates something in its totality, or as a whole, the partitive article designates a part of the whole. Note that depending on what you want to say, the same noun may be introduced by a definite, indefinite, or a partitive article. Compare these examples: Edouard: Vous prenez du vin, n'est-ce pas? Le vin rouge est bon pour la santé! En fait, nous avons un Beaujolais nouveau ou un Chambertin, un Châteauneufdu-Pape, ou j'ai partitive article definite article indefinite article Edouard: You are having (some) wine, aren't you? (a quantity that is not specified) Red wine is healthy! ('wine' in general) In fact, we have a Beaujolais nouveau, or a Chambertin, a Châteauneuf-du-Pape, or I have an excellent Médoc for you, or a little grey wine from Savoy. (These are items on the wine list, a countable quantity) 20

after the negative In negative sentences, du, de la, des, de l' change to de: Joe-Bob mange de la viande. Tammy ne mange pas deviande. Joe-Bob eats meat. Tex boit du café. Tammy ne boit jamais decafé.

21 after the negative In negative sentences, du, de la, des, de l' change to de: Joe-Bob mange de la viande. Tammy ne mange pas deviande. Joe-Bob eats meat. Tex boit du café. Tammy ne boit jamais decafé. Tammy does not eat meat. Tex drinks coffee. Tammy never drinks coffee. Il y a encore du vin. Il n'y a plus de vin. There is some wine left There is not any wine left.. The partitive and indefinite articles may be used in negative sentences, however, to emphasize the contrasting positive noun. For example: Entre Tex et Tammy, ce n'est pas de l'amitié, c'est de l'amour Edouard sert du poulet, pas des escar Between Tex and Tammy, it is not friendship, it is love! douard serves chicken, not snails! Notice the use of the partitive articles in the following dialogue. Tammy est au téléphone: Allô, Edouard? Je reçois des amis ce soir. Je voudrais faire des crêpes, mais j'ai oublié la recette. Tu peux m'aider? Edouard: Rien de plus facile! Tu mélanges de la farine et des oeufs. Tu ajoutes ensuite du lait, du sel et de l 'huile. Tu verses cette pâte dans une poêle. Quand la pâte est cuite, tu garnis la crêpe avec du fromage râpé, du jambon, ou des cèpes. Mais n'oublie pas Tammy, avec des crêpes, on ne boit pas de vin. Il faut boire du cidre et porter une coiffe bretonne!! Edouard serves chicken, not snails! Tammy is on the phone: Hello, Edouard? I'm having some friends over tonight. I would like to make some crêpes, but I've forgotten the recipe. Can you help me? Edouard: No problem! Mix some flour and eggs. Add some milk, some salt and some oil. Pour this batter in a pan. When the batter is cooked, fill the crêpe with some grated cheese, some ham, or cepes (mushrooms). But don't forget Tammy,with crêpes, you don't drink wine. You have to drink cider and wear a Breton hat! 21

Mascul i ne si ngul ar Femi ni ne si ngul ar Pl ural Transl ati on mon ma mes my ton ta tes your (familiar) son sa ses his or her or its notre notre nos our votre votre vos your (formal or plural)

22 Possessive Determiners page: det6 forms and uses The possessive determiners serve to express ownership or possession (hence the name). They are also often called possessive adjectives because they agree in gender and number with the noun they introduce. Mascul i ne si ngul ar Femi ni ne si ngul ar Pl ural Transl ati on mon ma mes my ton ta tes your (familiar) son sa ses his or her or its notre notre nos our votre votre vos your (formal or plural) leur leur leurs their Possessive articles, like all articles, must agree with the noun they modify. Thus, if the noun is feminine, the possessive article must be feminine, too. In the following example, the feminine noun famille requires a feminine form sa. Note that sa has three potential translations in English: 'his,' 'her,' or 'its.' So, how do you know which meaning is intended? Context! Since the following example sentence refers to Tex, we know that sa means 'his.' Tex présente sa famille: Voici mon frère, Trey, et ma soeur, Rita, avec ses enfants et leur chien Fido. Notre famille est formidable! Tex introduces his family. Here is my brother, Trey, and my sister, Rita with her children and their dog Fido. Our family is great! liai son Do not forget to make the liaison between the plural forms of the possessive determiners and words that begin with a vowel sound. Ma, ta, sa become mon, ton, son in front of feminine nouns beginning with a vowel sound. Tex continues his introductions: Tex: Voici Tammy, mon amie, et ses amies Bette et Fiona, c'està-dire nos amies. Tex: Here is Tammy, my friend, and her friends, Bette and Fiona, that is to say, our friends. Tammy parle avec Bette: Tex n'est plus mon ami! Il a complètement oublié mon cadeau et notre anniversaire! Il a oublié toutes ses promesses! Quel nul! Tammy is talking with Bette: Tex is not my friend any more! He competely forgot my present and our anniversary! He forgot all his promises. What a loser! 22

23 demonstrative determiners page: det7 forms Demonstrative determiners ('this', 'these', 'that' or 'those') are used to point out things or people. They are also sometimes called demonstrative adjectives (in French 'adjectifs démonstratifs'); they agree in number and gender with the noun they introduce. Masculine singular: ce Masculine singular before a vowel sound: cet ce tatou cet écureuil this armadillo this squirrel Feminine singular: cette cette chatte this cat (female) Plural (masculine or feminine): ces ces tatous ces écureuils these armadillos these squirrels Note that liaison is compulsory between ces and words starting with a vowel or a silent h. uses In general, demonstrative determiners designate something one can see or show: Tex explique: Ce bassin, c'est Barton Springs. Cette piscine s'appelle Deep Eddy. Tex explains: This pool is Barton Springs. This swimming pool is Deep Eddy. -ci and -là Demonstrative determiners can designate something close or far away: in order to distinguish between two or more elements, you can add the suffixes -ci or -là to the demonstrative determiner. The suffix -ci indicates that the item is relatively near to the speaker; - là suggests that something is farther away. In English, they are generally translated by 'this' and 'that': Tex: Tu vois Tammy, cette étoile-ci s'appelle Vénus. Mais ces étoiles-là, c'est la Voie lactée. Tammy: Venus... la voie lactée... oh Tex, j'aime bien quand tu me parles d'astronomie! Tex: See Tammy, this star (here) is called Venus. But those stars (there), are the Milky Way. Tammy: Venus... the Milky Way... oh, Tex, I like it when you talk to me about astronomy! 23

24 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource Tex et Tammy sont dans le rayon femmes de J. C. Penney. Tammy: Qu'est-ce que tu penses de c lot-ci? Tex: Ah non! Je n'aime pas du tout cette couleur. Tammy: Et ce bikini? Ce sera parfait pour cet été. Tu ne trouves pas? Tex: Quelle horreur! Ce tissu est complètement démodé! Tammy: Mais Tex, tu n'as aucun goût! Tu crois que ce vieux béret que tu portes est à la mode? Tex and Tammy are in the women's section of J. C. Penney. Tammy: What do you think of this bathing suit? Tex: Oh no! I don't like this color at all. Tammy: What about this bikini? It will be perfect for this summer, don't you think? Tex: It's horrible! This fabric is completely outdated! Tammy: Tex, you have no taste whatsoever! You think that this old beret you wear is fashionable? 24

determiners: expressions of quantity page: det8 There are many ways of expressing quantity: numbers (deux crêpes), the indefinite article (un tatou, an armadillo), and the partitive article (du lait,

25 determiners: expressions of quantity page: det8 There are many ways of expressing quantity: numbers (deux crêpes), the indefinite article (un tatou, an armadillo), and the partitive article (du lait, some milk). Quantities may also be expressed using adverbs and adverbial expressions, such as assez (enough), beaucoup (a lot), or trop (too much). When used with nouns, expressions of quantity are always followed by de (d' if the noun begins with a vowel sound). Tammy et Tex reçoivent des amis ce soir. Tammy est dans la cuisine. Tex regarde la télévision. Tammy: Une douzaine de crêpes, c'est trop pour quatre personnes? Tex: Mais non, Tammy, ce n'est pas assez. Il faut préparer beaucoup de crêpes. Tammy and Tex are having some friends over tonight. Tammy is in the kitchen. Tex is watching television. Tammy: A dozen crepes, that's too much for four people? Tex: No, Tammy, it's not too much. You can never prepare too many crepes. Here is a list of common adverbial expressions of quantity: assez de, enough beaucoup de, a lot un peu de, a little pl ei n de, many un tas de, a lot of trop de, too many Note that these expressions of quantity do not change in negative sentences: Tex: On ne prépare jamais trop de crêpes. Tex: One never prepares too many crepes! One can express quantity by using specific nouns or adverbs of quantity, as well as measures of weight, distance, or volume, especially in reference to food. For example: une boîte de, a can (box) of un bol de, a bowl of un bout de, a piece (end) of une bouteille de, a bottle of une cui ll ère de, a teaspoon of une douzaine de, a dozen un litre de, a liter of une li vre de, a pound of un morceau de, a piece of une part de, a serving of une pincée de, a pinch of une tasse de, a cup of 50 grammes de, 50 grams of une tranche de, a slice of un kilo de, a kilo of un verre de, a glass of The definite article (le, la, les) may be used with these expressions to indicate a quantity of a specific item. Remember that de + le and de + les form the contractions du and des respectively. un morceau du gâteau qu'edouard a préparé un verre du vin rouge, pas du blanc des invités parlent français a piece of the cake that Edouard made a glass of the red wine, not the white one beaucoup many of the guests speak French 25

Tammy lit la recette: Pour une douzaine de crêpes, mélanger 400 grammes de farine et deux oeufs. Ajouter ensuite un demi litre de lait, une cui ll ère de sel et une cuillère d'huile. Tammy: Dis, Tex!

26 Tammy lit la recette: Pour une douzaine de crêpes, mélanger 400 grammes de farine et deux oeufs. Ajouter ensuite un demi litre de lait, une cui ll ère de sel et une cuillère d'huile. Tammy: Dis, Tex! Arrête de faire le légume devant la télé! Viens m'aider! Tex: Comment? J'ai fait mon travail, moi! Le bouquet de roses et la bouteille de cidre sont sur la table! Tammy reads the recipe: For a dozen crêpes, mix 400 grams of flour and two eggs. Then add half a liter of milk, a spoonful of salt and a spoonful of oil. Tammy: Hey, Tex! Stop vegging out in front of the TV! Come and help me! Tex: What? I did my job! The bouquet of flowers and the bottle of cider are on the table! 26

27 tout page: det9 'tout' as an adjective Tout means 'all' or 'every' when it modifies a noun. It agrees in number and gender with the noun that follows. Masculine singular Masculine plural Feminine singul ar Feminine plural tout tous toute toutes These forms of tout are most often used with the definite articles le, les, la, l', but they may also be used with a possessive determiner: tous mes poèmes (all my poems), toute sa vie (all his/her life) etc.: Malgré toutes les filles que j'ai connues, In spite of all the girls (or all of the girls) that I have known, je pense à toi... I think of you... tout le temps, toute la journée, tous* les soirs, toutes les nuits. all the time, all day long, every evening, every night. *Note that the final s of tous is not pronounced when it is used as an adjective. Tout or toute may also be used without an article to mean 'every.' Tex: Tout tatou est poète! Every armadillo is a poet! 'tout' as a pronoun Tout is invariable when it functions as the indefinite pronoun meaning 'everything' or 'all', as in the first sentence below. The plural pronouns tous and toutes agree with the nouns they replace. Compare the examples below. Indefinite singular 'everything' Tammy: Tex, tu as vu ton éditeur? Tout s'est bien passé? To replace a plural noun Tex: Les éditeurs sont des idiots, je les déteste tous!* Les maisons d'éditions ne comprennent pas mon art. Toutes refusent mes poèmes romantiques! Tammy: Tex, did you see your publisher? Did everything go well? Tex: Publishers are fools, I hate them all! Publishing houses don't understand my art. All refuse my romantic poems! *Note that the final s in the pronoun tous is pronounced, in contrast to the unpronounced s in tous as an adjective. 27

28 'tout' as an adverb Tout may also be an adverb meaning 'all,' 'completely,' or 'quite' when it modifies another adverb, a preposition, or an adjective. Although tout is invariable before an adverb, a preposition or a masculine adjective, the feminine forms toute and toutes are used before feminine adjectives beginning with a consonant Invariable Before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant Tex: Les éditeurs ne comprennent rien. Mes thèmes sont tout nouveaux. Tex: Et ma poésie est toute moderne Tex: Editors don't understand anything. My themes are completely new. Tex: And my poetry is very modern. Tex: And my poetry is very modern. tout in common idiomatic phrases Here is a list of common idiomatic phrases with tout: pas du tout, not at all tout de suite, right away tout le monde, everyone tout le temps, all the time tous les jours, every day tous (toutes) les deux, both tous les deux jours, every other day tous les trois jours..., every three days en tout cas, in any case mal gré tout, in spite of everything tout à l'heure, in a little while tout à coup, all of a sudden tout à fait, completely tout droit, straight ahead tout de même, just the same toutes les deux semai nes, every other week tout en + participe présent, all the while... Tammy: Alors Tex, tu as bientôt fini ton recueil de poèmes? Tex: Oh ne m'en parle pas! J'ai perdu tout mon enthousiasme! J'ai toutes sortes de problèmes avec mon éditeur. Il refuse tous mes poèmes récents. Tammy: Ne t'inquiète pas! Tous les grands poètes sont incompris! Tammy: So Tex, have you almost finished writing your collection of poems? Tex: Oh don't ask! I have lost all my enthusiasm! I have all sorts of problems with my publisher. He refuses to publish all my recent poems. Tammy: Don't worry! All great poets are misunderstood! 28

29 indefinite determiners page: det10 Indefinite determiners qualify nouns and express the indefinite idea of quality (certain, any) or quantity (not one, each, different, several). They agree in number and gender with the noun they modify. Some indefinite determiners may be used as indefinite pronouns to replace a noun. Here is a list of common indefinite determiners: aucun (aucune), not one, not a single certai ns (certaines), certain chaque, each, every di fférents (différentes), various, some di vers (diverses), various, some plusieurs, several quelques, a few tout, all, every Bette: Il n'y a aucun doute. Tu finiras mère au foyer! Tammy: Chaque jour, tu trouves une méchanceté à dire. Aucune chatte n'est aussi désagréable que toi! Bette: Mais ouvre les yeux Tammy! Ton futur mari a plusieurs défauts. Il est snob, prétentieux et veut toujours avoir raison. Tammy: Mais il a aussi quelques qualités: il est beau et talentueux. Certai ns éditeurs pensent qu'il est le prochain prix Goncourt! Bette tout bas: Tu parles! Bette: There is no doubt. You'll end up a housewife! Tammy: Every day, you find something nasty to say. No cat is as unpleasant as you are! Bette: Open your eyes Tammy! Your future husband has several negative traits. He is snobbish, pretentious and always wants to be right. Tammy: But he also has a few good points: he is handsome and talented. Some publishers think that he is the next Goncourt prize winner.!bette under her breath: Yeah, right! 29

30 Adverbs Introduction to Adverbs page: adv1 An adverb is a word that qualifies the action of the verb, that is, it specifies how or when the action is performed. In English, many adverbs are indicated by the -ly ending. In French, most adverbs end in -ment. lentement attentivement souvent slowly carefully often Adverbs answer questions about the action: how? how much? when? and where? While most adverbs in French and English modify verbs, they can also modify other adverbs as well as adjectives. verb modified by adverb Ecoute attentivement. Listen carefully. adverb modified by adverb trop lentement too slowly adjective modified by adverb extrêmement silencieux extremely quiet Adverb vs. Adjective It is common in non-standard English for speakers to use adjectives in place of adverbs. Tex writes good. (instead of 'well') Aggies talk too slow. (instead of 'slowly') While this alternation is common in English, it is not common in French where adjectives are rarely used in place of the adverb. Remember that adverbs modify verbs (as well as other adverbs and adjectives) and adjectives modify nouns. Tex écrit bien. La poésie de Tex est bonne. Tex writes well. Tex's poetry is good. 30

adverbs: formation and placement uses In French as in English, an adverb describes the action of a verb. It answers such questions as 'where', 'when,' 'how,' 'how long,' or 'how often.

31 adverbs: formation and placement uses In French as in English, an adverb describes the action of a verb. It answers such questions as 'where', 'when,' 'how,' 'how long,' or 'how often.' Adverbs are invariable and may be used with almost all verbs. For example: page: adv2 Edouard cuisine bi en. Joe-Bob mange beaucoup. Edouard cooks well. Joe-Bob eats a lot. An adverb may also qualify an adjective or another adverb. Consider the sentence: 'Edouard cuisine très bi en' (Edouard cooks very well). Très qualifies bi en and both describe the action of the verb 'cuisiner'. common adverbs Following is a list of frequently used adverbs, categorized by type: manner bi en, well mal, badly vi te, quickly formation of regular adverbs A large number of French adverbs are derived from adjectives. They are usually formed by adding -ment to the feminine singular form of the adjective. Note the exception 'gentiment', which is derived from the adjective 'gentil' (nice). lent(e), slow doux (douce), soft heureux (heureuse), happy franc (franche), frank lentement, slowly doucement, softl heureusement, happily, fortunately franchement, frankly 31

32 However, -ment is added to the masculine singular form of adjectives that end with a vowel. Note the exception 'gaiement' which is derived from the adjective 'gai' (cheerful). poli(e) polite absolu(e), absolute vrai(e), true, real modéré(e), moderate poliment, politely absolument, absolutely vraiment, truly, really modérément, moderately Add -emment to the stem of adjectives that end in -ent; add -amment to the stem of adjectives ending in -ant. The stem is what remains of the adjective when -ent or -ant have been removed. Note that the one-syllable adjective 'lent' does not form its adverb, 'lentement', on this model. récent, recent fréquent, frequent suffisant, sufficient méchant, wicked, malicious récemment, recently fréquemment, frequently suffisamment, sufficiently méchamment, wickedly, nastily Note the addition of an acute accent to form the following adverbs: précis(e), precise profond(e), deep énorme, huge, enormous précisément, precisely profondément, deeply énormément, enormously 32

pl acement Use the following guidelines for placement of adverbs. adverbs that modify an adjective or another adverb Adverbs are placed directly before the adjective or adverb that they modify.

33 pl acement Use the following guidelines for placement of adverbs. adverbs that modify an adjective or another adverb Adverbs are placed directly before the adjective or adverb that they modify. Edouard: J'habite le Texas depuis très longtemps, mais je trouve que le barbecue est vrai ment dégueulasse! Edouard: I've lived in Texas for a very long time, but I find that barbecue is truly disgusting! adverbs that modify a verb Adverbs are usually placed immediately after the conjugated verb. If the verb is negative, the adverb is placed after the negation. Edouard comprend mal les habitudes culinaires américaines. Edouard ne marche pas vite, parce qu'il sait déjà ce que les clients vont commander. Edouard: Ils exigent toujours du ketchup, mais il n'y a pas de ketchup dans mon restaurant. Edouard understands poorly American culinary habits. Edouard is not walking fast, because he already knows what the customers are going to order. Edouard: They always demand ketchup, but there is no ketchup in my restaurant. Note that most common adverbs are placed directly after the verb before the objects. Joe-Bob: J'aime beaucoup le ketchup! J'aime davantage le foie gras! Joe-Bob: I like ketchup a lot! Edouard: Edouard: I like foie gras even more! adverbs that modify a whole sentence If an adverb is a comment on the entire sentence (mal heureusement, en pl us), it may be placed at the beginning or end of the sentence. Adverbs of this type include adverbs of time and place. In the following dialogue, contrast the adverbs that modify the whole sentence to those that modify just the verb. Joe-Bob: Edouard, viens dîner avec nous ce soi r! Edouard: Je n'aime pas dîner dans des restaurants américains parce que je trouve du ketchup partout. Vous allez sûrement au Salt Lick, et tu sais que je déteste le barbecue. Joe-Bob: Malheureusement, on n'a pas assez d'argent pour aller dans un restaurant snob! Edouard refuse obstinément l'invitation de Joe-Bob: Tu m'invites souvent, mais toujours à l'américaine! Joe-Bob: Edouard, come out to eat with us this evening! Edouard: I don't like to eat in American restaurants because I find ketchup everywhere. You're surely going to go to the Salt Lick and you know that I detest barbeque. Joe-Bob: Unfortunately, we don't have enough money to go to a snobby restaurant! Obstinately, Edouard refuses Joe-Bob's invitation: You invite me out to eat often, but always in the American style. 33

34 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource placement of adverbs with passé compose page: adv3 The adverb in French usually follows the conjugated verb. Thus, in all compound tenses (i.e. tenses where an auxiliary is required, such as the passé composé), adverbs are placed right after the auxiliary and just before the past participle.

34 34 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource placement of adverbs with passé compose page: adv3 The adverb in French usually follows the conjugated verb. Thus, in all compound tenses (i.e. tenses where an auxiliary is required, such as the passé composé), adverbs are placed right after the auxiliary and just before the past participle. However, some longer adverbs ending in -ment may follow the past participle. In a sentence in the periphrastic future ('futur proche'), adverbs are placed right before the infinitive. If the conjugated verb is in the negative, the adverb follows the negation. Tex: Oh, j'ai trop mangé. Je ne vais pas bi en dormir. Edouard: Mais tu n'as pas beaucoup mangé! Juste de la soupe! Tex: Oui, mais il y avait une mouche dans la soupe! Edouard: Quoi? Une mouche dans mon restaurant! Pas possible! Je vais immédiatement te préparer une infusion. Oh, tu sais, les mouches, ça se digère vi te. Tex: Oh, I ate too much. I am not going to sleep well Edouard: But you didn't eat much! Just some soup! Tex: Yes, but there was a fly in the soup! Edouard: What? A fly in my restaurant! It's not possible! I'm going to prepare an herb tea for you right away. Oh, you know, flies are easily digested.

35 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource comparative and superlative of adverbs page: adv4 comparative of adverbs: indicating more, less, or equality Plus + adverb + que conveys the idea

35 35 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource comparative and superlative of adverbs page: adv4 comparative of adverbs: indicating more, less, or equality Plus + adverb + que conveys the idea of 'more... than', moins + adverb + que the idea of 'less... than'. Aussi + adverb + que conveys the idea of 'as... as.' Joe-Bob court plus vite qu'edouard. Tex court moins vite que Joe- Bob. Qui court aussi lentement qu' Edouard? Personne, bien sûr! Joe-Bob runs faster than Edouard. Tex runs slower (less fast) than Joe-Bob. Who runs as slowly as Edouard? No one, of course! Note that mieux (better) is the irregular comparative form of the adverb bien (well). The other comparative forms of bien are regular (moins bien que, aussi bien que). Joe-Bob: Vous allez bien aujourd'hui? Vous êtes en forme pour la course? Tex: Ah, oui, je vais mieux qu' hier. Je n'ai pas fumé depuis 24 heures. Edouard: Moi, je vais moins bien qu' hier. J'ai tellement travaillé que j'ai des courbatures. Corey: Oh, je vais aussi bien qu' hier. Je suis dopé, comme d'habitude. Joe-Bob: Are you doing ok today? Are you in good shape for the race? Tex: Ah yes, I am better than yesterday. I haven't smoked for 24 hours. Edouard: Oh no, I am less well than yesterday. I've worked so much that I have aches and pains. Corey: Oh I am doing as well as yesterday. I'm high (on insecticides), as usual. superlative of adverbs: indicating the most, the least In French as in English, the superlative is a way to express a maximum or minimum quality or capacity: 'the fastest', 'the least fast'. To form the superlative of an adverb, the masculine singular form of the definite article is always used: le, followed by plus (more) or moins (less) before the adverb. Note that the superlative of an adverb has only one form. Le mieux (the best) and le moins bien (the least well) are the superlative forms of the adverb bien (well). Joe-Bob, Tex, Corey et Edouard se préparent à faire une course. Corey: Qui va gagner? Joe-Bob: Moi, bien sûr! je cours le plus vite et Edouard va être le dernier parce qu'il court le moins vite! Edouard (vexé): Tu dis ça parce que je suis un escargot! Mais tout le monde sait que je cours le plus élégamment! Joe-Bob, Tex, Corey and Edouard are about to start a race. Corey: Who's going to win? Joe-Bob: Me, of course! I run the fastest and Edouard is going to be last, because he runs the least fast! Edouard (offended): You say this because I am a snail! But everyone knows that I run the most elegantly!

-il y a, ago page: adv5 When il y a is followed by a time expression (such as longtemps, quel que temps, une semaine, deux jours etc.), it generally means 'ago': il y a une semaine (a week ago).

36 -il y a, ago page: adv5 When il y a is followed by a time expression (such as longtemps, quel que temps, une semaine, deux jours etc.), it generally means 'ago': il y a une semaine (a week ago). Tex: La mère supérieure m'a écrit récemment. Elle veut un souvenir du Texas! Il y a un an j'ai promis de lui envoyer quelque chose, mais en ce moment je n'ai pas d'argent. Je viens de dépenser mes derniers sous il y a 10 minutes. Tex: Mother Superior (Tex was raised by nuns in France) wrote me recently. She wants a souvenir from Texas! A year ago I promised to send her something, but now I don't have any money. I just spent my last money 10 minutes ago. Joe-Bob: Pense à des souvenirs pas chers. Hmmm.. mon ancien berceau, peut-être. C'est parfait pour une mère! See also il y a and Il y a... que. Joe-Bob: Think of souvenirs that don't cost much. Hmmm... my old crib, maybe. It's perfect for a mother! 36

37 37 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource tôt, tard, en avance, en retard, à l'heure page: adv5 Tôt and tard are irregular adverbs. Tôt means early in a general, non-measurable sense: early in the day, or in one's life, one's career, relationship, in a film, book, etc. Likewise, tard means late in the sense of late in the day (or in one's life, career, etc.). En avance (early), en retard (late), à l 'heure (on time) are invariable phrases, i.e. they have only one form. They always refer to a schedule: en avance means early in the sense of ahead of schedule and en retard means late, behind schedule. They are usually used with 'être' and verbs of movement like 'arriver', 'partir', 'rentrer', 'revenir': in other words, the verbs from the Alamo of être. They are placed at the end of the sentence. Tex et Bette sont devant PCL. PCL. Bette: Qui est-ce que tu attends, Tex? Tex? Tex: Oh, comme d'habitude, j'attends Edouard. Il est en retard. Il n'est jamais à l 'heure. Bette: Moi, je suis toujours à l 'heure. Et j'arrive même en avance quand j'ai rendez- vous avec quelqu'un comme toi: digne, intelligent, sophistiqué, beau... Tex: Bof... Tu crois qu'il est trop tôt pour parler mariage avec Tammy? Bette: Certainement! Il est beaucoup trop tôt. Tu dois attendre! Regarde l'heure. Il est tard. On y va Tex and Bette are outside Bette: Who are you waiting for Tex: Oh, as usual, I'm waiting for Edouard. He is late. He is never on time. Bette: I am always on time. And I even arrive early when I'm meeting someone like you: dignified, intelligent, sophisticated, handsome... Tex: Bof... Do you think it is too early to discuss marriage with Tammy? Bette: Certainly! It is much too early. You have to wait! Look at the time. It is late. Shall we go?

38 Adjectives Introduction to Adjectives page: adj1 An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. The major differences between adjectives in French and English concern agreement and placement. In French, an adjective is usually placed after the noun it modifies and must agree in gender and number with the noun. In English, an adjective usually comes before the noun it modifies and is invariable, that is, it does not agree. Tex est un tatou philosophique Edouard est un escargot raffiné. Joe-Bob est un écureuil aimable. Bette est une chatte capricieuse. Corey est un cafardivre. Fiona est travailleuse. (f) Mais Joe-Bob n'est pas travailleur. (m) Tex is a philosophical armadillo. Edouard is a refined snail. Joe-Bob is a friendly squirrel. Bette is a temperamental cat. Corey is an intoxicated cockroach. Fiona is hard-working. But Joe-Bob isn't hard-working. 38

39 Adjective vs. adverb It is common in nonstandard English for speakers to use adjectives in place of adverbs. Joe-Bob says: "Gee, Tex writes real good." (instead of: "Tex writes well.") Joe-Bob says "Gosh, Edouard, you walk real slow." (instead of: "Edouard, you talk slowly.") French adjectives are rarely used in place of the adverbial form. Remember that adjectives modify nouns and adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs! Tex écrit bien. (adverb modifies verb) La poésie de Tex est bonne. (adjective modifies noun) Tex writes well. Tex's poetry is good. 39

40 Adjectives: Formation and Placement page: adj2 formation Adjectives agree in both number and gender with the noun or pronoun they modify. For regular adjectives the masculine form is the base form to which endings are added. The feminine adjective is formed by adding an e. The plural adjective is formed by adding s. masculine singular feminine singular masculine plural feminine plural petit petite petits petites Note how the singular and plural forms of the masculine adjective sound the same, and the singular and plural forms of the feminine adjective also sound the same. Tex est petit. Tammy est petite. Tex et Trey sont petits. Tammy et Bette sont petites. Tex is little. Tammy is little. Tex and Trey are little. Tammy and Bette are little. The adjective takes the masculine plural when the nouns it modifies are of different genders: Tammy et Tex sont petits. (Tammy and Tex are little.) Irregular adjectives do not follow the rules given above. placement In French, most adjectives follow the noun, unlike in English, where the adjective precedes the noun. Here are some examples of adjectives following the noun: Tex porte toujours un béret rond, même quand il fait du sport. Il aime les romans existentialistes. Dans son enfance, Tex a habité chez des nonnes catholiques. Tammy a un nez pointu. C'est une tatou mince et sympathique. Elle apprend la langue française et fait des études littéraires. Bette est de caractère méfiant. Elle est d'humeur changeante. C'est une chatte très maline Tex always wears a round beret, even when he exercises. He likes existentialist novels. As a child, Tex lived with catholic nuns. Tammy has a pointed nose. She is a slim and nice armadillo. She's learning the French language and is studying literature. Bette has a mistrustful personality. She has changing moods. She's a very cunning cat. 40

41 Note that there is a small group of adjectives that normally precede the noun. Some adjectives can also be placed before or after the noun but changing the position of the adjectives can modify their meaning. Tammy, Bette et Tex sont à Gregory Gym. Les deux filles parlent, puis se disputent, pendant que Tex fait son sport annuel. Tammy: Regarde, Bette, comme ses ongles jaunes tapent sur le tapis roulant quand il court! Quel tatou adorabl e! Et ce museau fin et pointu, ces écailles étincelantes, ce corps souple, ces gestes et ces mouvements pleins de grâce... Bette: Berk! Tu aimes vraiment ça!? Un corps humide de sueur et un poil gris comme une boule de papier mâché! Oh mon dieu! Et cette odeur désagréable! Comme un rat noyé! Tu n'es pas séri euse! Tammy: Bette, je ne suis pas idiote! Je connais tes intentions! Il est à moi! Tammy, Bette and Tex are at Gregory Gym. The two girls talk, then argue, while Tex does his yearly workout. Tammy: Bette, would you look at those yellow nails of his clicking on the tread mill when he runs! What an adorable armadillo! And that snout, so fine and pointy! Those shiny scales, that supple body, his every gesture and movement so full of grace... Bette: Yuck! You like that!? That clammy body, gray fur? Like a wad of paper maché! Oh, Lord! And that awful smell! Like a drowned rat! You're not serious! Tammy: Bette, you don't fool me! I understand your intentions! He's mine! 41

42 Adjectives that proceed the nour page: adj3 The placement of most adjectives in French is after the noun: un escargot parl ant, une fourmi travailleuse, des tatous intelligents, etc. There is a small group of adjectives, however, that normally precede the noun. These adjectives may be categorized as adjectives of Beauty, Age, Numbers Goodness, and Size (BANGS). autre, other beau (bel le), beautiful bon (bonne), good grand (grande), tall, big gros (grosse), big, fat jeune, young joli (jolie), pretty peti t mauvais (mauvaise), bad nouveau (nouvelle), new (petite), little vi eux (vi eille), old ordinal numbers: premi er (premi ère), first deuxi ème, second troisième, third, etc. Tammy est une belle Américaine. C'est aussi une bonne amie. C'est une petite tatou. Trey est le jeune frère de Tex. C'est le troisième enfant de la famille. Tammy is a beautiful American woman. She is also a good friend. Tammy is a little armadillo. Trey is Tex's young brother. He is the third child in the family beau, nouveau, vi eux Beau, nouveau, and vieux have irregular forms. Note the special forms in the masculine singular when they precede a word that begins with a vowel or a silent h. masculine singular masculine before vowel feminine singular masculine plural feminine plural beau bel belle beaux belles nouveau nouvel nouvelle nouveaux nouvelles vieux vieil vieille vieux vieilles 42

French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource The adjectives which precede the noun must agree in number and gender with the noun they modify (see the regular rule for adjective formation).

43 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource The adjectives which precede the noun must agree in number and gender with the noun they modify (see the regular rule for adjective formation). Be aware that changing the position of some adjectives may change their meaning. arnouvel arde famille de Rita. Tammy: Qui est cette belle femme? Rita: C'est notre mère. arautres ar arvieil aret puis, à côté, c'est moi. arpetit arest laid! arpremière arde toi. arfamily album. Tammy: Who is that beautiful woman? Rita: That's our mother. ar arand then, next to him, that's me. arhe ugly! arof you. 43

44 Irregular adjectives page: adj4 Regular adjectives are formed by adding an e to the masculine form in the singular (content / contente), or by adding an s to the masculine and feminine forms in the plural (Tex et Edouard sont contents / Tammy et Bette sont contentes). This group of adjectives is by far the most common. There are, however, a number of adjectives which are called irregular, because they do not have the normal -e, -s, or -es endings. The endings of these irregular adjectives vary widely and often change the pronunciation. gender Some adjectives are completely irregular: masculine feminine translation doux douce soft faux fausse false favori favorite favorite frais fraîche fresh long longue long public publique public Other adjectives can be grouped in categories: masculine ending feminine ending french english -el -elle cruel cruelle cruel -eil -eille pareil pareille similar -il -ille gentil gentille kind, nice -on -onne mignon mignonne cute -s -sse gros grosse big, fat -en -enne ancien ancienne old -et -ète secret secrète secretive -er -ère cher chère dear, expensive -eux -euse heureux heureuse happy -eur -euse trompeur trompeuse deceptive -teur -trice créateur créatrice creative -f -ve actif active active -c -che franc franche frank -ou -olle fou folle crazy 44

45 Some adjectives have identical masculine and feminine forms. This is generally the case with adjectives ending in e in their masculine form and with foreign adjectives like 'snob', 'cool', etc. For example: Tex est un tatou imaginaire; Tammy aussi est imaginaire. Ils sont imaginaires. (Tex is an imaginary armadillo; Tammy too is imaginary. They are imaginary.) Here are a few of these adjectives: pauvre (poor) difficile (difficult) sensible (sensitive) riche (rich) calme (calm) semblable (similar) mince (slim) minuscule (tiny) ridicule (ridiculous) propre (clean) ironique (ironic) imaginaire (imaginary) number The majority of adjectives are regular in the plural; that is, an -s is added to the singular masculine or feminine forms. There are two major exceptions to this rule: Do not add an s to the masculine form of adjectives ending in s or x. The masculine singular and plural forms are thus identical: un animal heureux (a happy animal), des animaux heureux (happy animals). However, the feminine plural form of these adjectives is regular; it is formed by simply adding an s to the feminine singular form: une fille heureuse (a happy girl), des filles heureuses (happy girls). Adjectives ending in al in the masculine singular form change to aux in the masculine plural form. Tex est un tatou international. Edouard et Tex sont des animaux internationaux. Tex is an international armadillo. Edouard and Tex are international animals. The feminine plural form of these adjectives is regular; it is formed by simply adding an s to the feminine singular form: Tex aime lire la presse internationale. Tex aime aussi les revues internationales. (Tex likes to read international papers. Tex also likes international magazines). Tex: Mais, qu'est-ce qui ne va pas? Tammy: C'est encore Bette! Elle n'est jamais sincère! Sois franc Tex. Tu ne la trouves pas capricieuse et cruelle? Tex: Non! Elle est gentille! C'est une bonneamie! Qu'est-ce qu'elle a fait? Tammy: Comme tu es naïf! Elle me raconte que tu me trouves ennuyeuse, que tu es amoureux d'une de tes étudiantes. C'est vrai? Tex: Tu es folle! C'est une fausse accusation! Tammy: Hmm... Tu veux que je t'explique? C'est très clair. Elle est jalouse! C'est le complot classique. Elle essaie de nous séparer, nous des amis si loyaux! Tex: But, what's wrong? Tammy: It's Bette again! She is never sincere! Be frank Tex. Don't you find her capricious and cruel? Tex: No! She is nice! She is a good friend! What did she do? Tammy: You are so naive! She tells me that you think I'm boring, that you are in love with one of your students. Is that true? Tex: You're crazy! It's a false accusation! Tammy: Hmm... Do you want me to explain? It's very clear. She is jealous! This is the classic plot. She tries to separate us, so loyal friends 45

46 Adjectives whose meaning varies with placement page: adj5 Some adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they are describing. Their position determines their meaning. When the adjective is placed before the noun it tends to carry a figurative, or metaphorical meaning. When it follows the noun, it carries a more literal, or actual meaning. Consider the following examples: adjective literal sense following the noun figurative sense before the noun ancien cher dernier grand même Paw-Paw adore les meublesanciens. Paw-Paw adores very oldfurniture. Tammy aime les parfums chers de Paris. Tammy likes expensive perfumes from Paris. Tex a vu Marianne la semaine dernière. Tex saw Marianne last [preceding] week. En général, les tatous ne sont pas grands. In general, armadillos are not tall. Bette est l'hypocrisie même! Bette is hypocrisy itself! Marianne est l'ancienne copine de Tex. Marianne is Tex's former girlfriend. Chers amis, je suis content de vous voir! Dear friends, I am happy to see you! Tex dit à Marianne: Pour la dernière fois, je ne veux plus te voir. Tex says to Marianne: For the last [final] time, I don't want to see you anymore. Tex est un grand philosophe. Tex is a great philosopher. Tammy et Bette adorent le même petit tatou. Tammy and Bette adore the same little armadillo. pauvre A son arrivée à Austin, Tex était un tatou pauvre. When he came to Austin, Tex was a financially poor armadillo. Le pauvre Tex était malheureux quand il a quitté la France. The unfortunate Tex was not happy when he left France. prochain propre seul si mple Mes chers étudiants, la semaine prochaine vous avez un examen My dear students, next [in a series] week you have an exam. Mais oui, Edouard est un escargot propre! Yes, Edouard is a clean snail. Corey est seul. C'est un cafard. Corey is alone. He's a cockroach. Bette n'est pas simple. Bette is not simple [uncomplicated] Tex dit à Marianne: Et la prochaine fois que tu me suis, j'appelle la police! Tex says to Marianne: And the next [following] time that you follow me, I will call the police. Edouard veut son propre restaurant. Edouard wants his own restaurant. Dans le coeur de Tex, Tammy est le seul tatou qui compte. In Tex's heart, Tammy is the only armadillo that matters. Tex n'est pas un simple poète, c'est aussi un philosophe. Tex is not just a poet, he is also a philosopher Vrai Paw-Paw a raconté des histoires vraies sur sa vie pendant la guerre. Paw-Paw told true stories about his life during the war. Les aventures de Tex et ses copains, c'est une vraie histoire. The adventures of Tex and his friends are a real story! 46

Tammy attend Tex à la bibliothèque depuis une heure. Enfin il arrive. Tammy (ironique): Ne te presse pas mon cher Tex! Tu oublies tes propres rendez- vous maintenant?! Tex: Ah, Tammy, ma chérie!

47 Tammy attend Tex à la bibliothèque depuis une heure. Enfin il arrive. Tammy (ironique): Ne te presse pas mon cher Tex! Tu oublies tes propres rendez- vous maintenant?! Tex: Ah, Tammy, ma chérie! J'étais au café avec mon grand ami Edouard, quand j'ai vu une femme seule. Elle avait l'air triste. Elle était le désespoir même. Et la beauté même... Tammy (toujours furieuse): Et alors? Tex: Eh bien? Tu me connais! Je suis un brave tatou! Alors, je suis allé lui offrir un café pour la consoler. Tammy: Ah oui? Tex: Aïe! Tammy has been waiting for Tex at the library for an hour. Finally, he arrives. Tammy (ironic): Take your time my dear Tex! Are you forgetting your own appointments now?! Tex: Oh, Tammy, darling, I was at the cafe with my great friend Edouard, when I saw a lonely woman. She looked sad. She was despair itself! Beauty itself also... Tammy (still furious): So what? Tex: So? You know the way I am! I am a good armadillo! So I went and bought her a coffee to console her. Tammy: Oh really? Tex: Ouch! 47

Comparisons with adjectives page: adj6 comparative adjectives i ndicating more or l ess Adjectives are frequently used to compare things, people, events, ideas etc. Plus.

Bien sûr, il est plus difficile d'être poète que d'être écureuil! Tex is more intelligent than Joe-Bob. But Joe-Bob is less pretentious than Tex.

48 Comparisons with adjectives page: adj6 comparative adjectives i ndicating more or l ess Adjectives are frequently used to compare things, people, events, ideas etc. Plus... que conveys the idea of 'more... than', moins... que the idea of 'less than.' Tex est plus intelligent que Joe-Bob. Mais Joe-Bob est moins prétentieux quetex. Bien sûr, il est plus difficile d'être poète que d'être écureuil! Tex is more intelligent than Joe-Bob. But Joe-Bob is less pretentious than Tex. Of course, it is more difficult to be a poet than to be a squirrel comparative adjectives i ndicating similarity or equality Aussi... que conveys the idea of 'as... as'. Fiona est aussi belle que Tammy. Mais elles ne sont pas aussi séduisantes que Bette. Fiona is as beautiful as Tammy. But they are not as seductive as Bette. irregular adjectives The adjectives bon and mauvais have irregular forms of comparison, meilleur and pire. However, the regular form plus mauvais que has become commonly accepted. Note that this irregularity is found in English too with 'better' (not *gooder) and 'worse' (not *badder). D'après Tex, Tammy est un bon parti. Mais Bette pense qu'elle serait un meilleur parti que Tammy. Mais il est évident que le caractère de Bette est plus mauvais que celui de Tammy. According to Tex, Tammy is a good match. But Bette thinks she would be a better match than Tammy. But it is obvious that Bette's personality is worse than Tammy's. Bette: Tex, as-tu jamais vu une fille aussi jolie que moi? Tex philosophe: Euh! La beauté physique est moins importante que la beauté de l'âme. Voyons Bette, je n'ai pas le temps de penser à des choses aussi triviales que celles-ci.. Bette: Tex, have you ever seen a girl as pretty as I am? Tex the philosopher: Ah! Physical beauty is less important than the beauty of the soul. Look Bette, I do not have time to think about things as trivial as that... Bette: D'accord, d'accord, mais je suis moins bête et plus sexy que Tammy, non? Tex: Être ou ne pas être, là est la question Bette: Ok, ok, but I am less stupid and more sexy than Tammy, don't you think? Tex: To be or not to be, that is the question

Superlative of adjectives page: adj7 formation and placement In French as in English, the superlative is a form of an adjective expressing 'the best', 'the smallest', 'the most interesting'.

49 Superlative of adjectives page: adj7 formation and placement In French as in English, the superlative is a form of an adjective expressing 'the best', 'the smallest', 'the most interesting'. To form the superlative, use the definite article (le, la, les) and the adverb plus or moins before the adjective. Note that the superlative of an adjective agrees with the noun it modifies in gender and in number. The placement of the superlative corresponds to the usual placement of the adjective. In other words, if the adjective follows the noun, then the superlative will follow the noun, too. And conversely, if the adjective precedes the noun, then the superlative adjective will precede the noun, too. Note that if the adjective follows the noun, the definite article is used twice. superlative le (la, les) pl us (the most) le (la, l es) moins (the least) adjective after noun adjective before noun Bette est la chatte la plus rusée du monde. Bette is the slickest cat in the world. Tammy est la plus gentille tatou du monde. Tammy is the nicest armadillo in the world. Tammy est la tatou la moins rusée du monde. Tammy is the least slick armadillo in the world. Bette est la moins gentille chatte du monde. Bette is the least nice cat in the world. Note that instead of the definite article, you may use a possessive determiner (mon, ma, mes, etc.), so Tex might say: 'Edouard est mon ami le plus distingué' (Edouard is my most distinguished friend). irregular superlatives The adjectives bon and mauvais have irregular patterns in the superlative. Note there are two forms for expressing 'the worst': the irregular form le (la) pire and the more commonly used le (l a) plus mauvais(e). superlative of bon (good) superlative of mauvais (bad) the best the least good the worst the least bad le meilleur campus le moins bon campus le pl us mauvais campus la pire université la plus mauvaise université le moins mauvais campus la meilleure université la moins bonne université la moins mauvai se université les meilleurs profs les moins bon profs les pires profs les plus mauvais profs les moins mauvais profs les meilleures notes les moins bonnes notes les pires notes les plus mauvaises notes les moins mauvaises notes 49

50 The superlative of mauvais is always either le pire or le plus mauvais. But while you may say 'la plus mauvaise université' or 'la pire université,' you may only say 'les pires ploucs,' 'les pires catastrophes,' 'les pires crimes' etc. Why? Because 'plouc,' 'catastrophe,' 'crime' are already negative and it would be redundant to use 'mauvais' or its superlative, 'le plus mauvais,' in front of them. Tammy: Texas ATammy: Texas A&M est la plus mauvaise université du monde. Elle a la moins bonne équipe de foot. Elle attire les pires ploucs! Les meilleurs étudiants viennent à UT parce qu'austin est la ville la plus cool du Texas! Joe-Bob: Tu parles! UT craint! C'est la plus grande université du Texas! En plus, les étudiants de UT sont les plus snobs! College Station est la plus belle ville du monde! Tammy: Texas A&M is the worst university in the world! It has the worst football team. It attracts the worst rednecks! The best students come to UT because Austin is the coolest city in Texas! Joe-Bob: Go on! UT sucks! It's the largest university in Texas! And, UT students are the most snobbish! College Station is the most beautiful city in the world! 50

51 Bon/meilleur vs. bien mieux page: adj8 bon/bien Bon (good) is an adjective. Although it has an irregular feminine form, bonne, the plural is formed regularly by adding an -s to the masculine or feminine adjective. Bien (well, really, very) is an adverb. The adjective bon modifies a noun, whereas the adverb bien modifies verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. adjective bon La cuisine de Tammy est bonne. Tammy est une bonne cuisinière. Tammy's cooking is good. Tammy is a good cook. adverb bien Mmm... Tammy fait bien la cuisine. Mmm... Tammy cooks well. Tammy lit la recette bien attentivement. Tammy reads the recipe very attentively. Ooh, la soupe de Tammy est bien assaisonnée. Ooh, Tammy's soup is well -seasoned. mei ll eur/ mi eux Comparisons with bon and bien are not formed regularly using 'plus... que' (more... than). Instead use mei ll eur(e)(s) que, and mi eux que: adjective bon/meilleur Tammy est une meilleure cuisinière que Fiona. Les gâteaux de Tammy sont meilleurs que les gâteaux de Fiona. Tammy is a better cook than Fiona. Tammy's cakes are better than Fiona's cakes. adverb bien/mieux Mais si, Tammy cuisine mieux que Fiona. Et la soupe de Tammy est mieux assaisonnée que la soupe de Fiona. But yes, Tammy cooks better than Fiona. And Tammy's soup is better seasoned than Fiona's soup. The adverb bien is an intensifier and can be translatied as 'much' in English. Note that 'much better' is sometimes translated as bien meilleur, sometimes as bien mieux. Tammy est bien meilleure cuisinière que Fiona Tammy is a much better cook that Fiona. Tammy fait bien mieux la cuisine qu Fiona Tammy cooks much better than Fiona 51

aussi bon/ aussi bi en Aussi bon que (comparisons with adjectives) conveys the idea of 'as good as'. Aussi bien que (comparisons with adverbs) conveys the idea of 'as well as.

Bette's cooking is as good as Tammy's. adverb bien/aussi bien que Bette cuisine aussi bien que Tammy. Bette cooks as well as Tammy.

52 aussi bon/ aussi bi en Aussi bon que (comparisons with adjectives) conveys the idea of 'as good as'. Aussi bien que (comparisons with adverbs) conveys the idea of 'as well as.' adjective bon/aussi bon que Mais Bette est une aussi bonne cuisinière que Tammy. But Bette is as good a cook as Tammy. La cuisine de Bette est aussi bonne que la cuisine de Tammy. Bette's cooking is as good as Tammy's. adverb bien/aussi bien que Bette cuisine aussi bien que Tammy. Bette cooks as well as Tammy. le mei lleur/ le mi eux : superl ati ve forms In French as in English, the superlative is a form expressing a maximum or minimum quality or capacity. In English, 'good' and 'well' have the same maximum superlative: 'the best'. In French, however, the maximum superlatives are different; they are formed with the definite articles le (la, l es) meilleur(s) (superlative adjectives) or le mieux (superlative adverbs). The minimum superlatives (le moins bon, le moins bien) are formed regularly. superlative adjectives Qui fait la meilleure tarte? Qui fait les moins bonnes cuisses de grenouilles? Who makes the best tart? Who makes the worst frog legs? 52

superlative adverbs Qui cuisine le mieux? Who cooks (the) best? Et qui cuisine le moins bien? And who cooks (the) worst? Edouard arbitre un concours de cuisine.

53 superlative adverbs Qui cuisine le mieux? Who cooks (the) best? Et qui cuisine le moins bien? And who cooks (the) worst? Edouard arbitre un concours de cuisine. Tammy, Bette et Fiona présentent des tartes. Edouard goûte d'abord la tarte de Tammy. Edouard: Une tarte aux pommes... C'est très sucré, mais délicieux. Tammy est bonne cuisinière. Oui, oui, elle cuisine bien. Edouard goûte ensuite la tarte de Fiona. Edouard is judging a cooking contest. Tammy, Bette, and Fiona are presenting their tarts. First, Edouard tastes Tammy's tart. Edouard: An apple tart... It's very sweet, but delicious. Tammy is a good cook. Yes, yes, she cooks well. Next, Edouard tastes Fiona's tart. Edouard: Une tarte aux piments... C'est épicé mais Edouard: A pepper tart... It's spicy, but certainly certainement original. Est-ce que cette tarte est mei ll original. Is this tart better than Tammy's? No, in my eure que celle de Tammy? Non, à mon avis, Fiona opionion, Fiona cooks as well as Tammy. cuisine aussi bien que Tammy. Enfin, Edouard goûte la tarte de Bette. Finally, Edouard tastes Bette's tart. Edouard: Une tarte aux fruits exotiques. Hmm... c'est magnifique. Cette tarte me séduit terriblement. Aucun doute! C'est Bette qui va recevoir le prix. C'est elle qui cuisine le mieux. C'est, comme c'est délicieux! Ditesmoi, Bette, il y a un je ne sais quoi dans cette tarte. Quel est votre secret? Edouard: An exotic fruit tart. Hmm... it's magnificent. This tart really seduces me. No question about it! Bette's going to receive the prize. She's the one who cooks the best. How delicious it is! Tell me, Bette, there's an I don't know what in this tart. What is your secret? Bette: Mais, c'est tout simple, Edouard. Quand je cuisine, j'ajoute toujours une pincée de Viagra! Bette: But it's very simple, Edouard. When I cook, I always add a pinch of Viagra! 53

54 Participles as adjectives page: adj9 The present participles and past participles of verbs are often used as adjectives. So they agree in number and gender with the noun they modify, just like regular adjectives. The distinction between adjectives derived from present and past participles is similar to that between -ing and -ed adjectives in English: fatigant (tiring) / fatigué (tired). Oh, la, la, Tex est fatigué après ses cours. Pff... quand il parle de philosophie, Tex est parfois fatigant. Oh, la, la, Tex is tired after his classes. Pff... when he talks about philosophy, Tex is sometimes tiring. present parti ciples used as adj ecti ves The present participle is formed by dropping the -ons ending from the nous form in the present tense and adding -ant. Tex est un tatou intéressant. (intéresser) fille charmante. (charmer) Edouard et Corey sont des animauxamusants. (amuser) Bette et Fiona sont des creatures surprenantes. (surprendre) Tex is an interesting armadillo. Tammy est une Tammy is a charming girl. Edouard and Corey are amusing animals. Bette and Fiona are surprising creatures. past parti ciples used as adj ecti ves Past participle formation depends on the verb class (-er, -ir, -re, or irregular). Tex et Tammy forment un couple uni. (unir) Pauvre Joe-Bob! Il est perdu... comme d'habitude. (perdre) Edouard et Tex sont des Français peu américanisés. (américaniser) Bette est trop gâtée. (gâter) Tex and Tammy form a united couple. Poor Joe-Bob! He's lost... as usual. Edouard and Tex are not very Americanized French people. Bette is too spoiled. Note that past participles used as adjectives may have a passive meaning, and thus be followed by an agent introduced by par (by) or de (with): Bette est une chatte entourée d'admirateurs. Bette est très gâtée par ses admirateurs. Bette is a cat surrounded by admirers. Bette is very spoiled by her admirers. Joe-Bob: Corey, tu as vu? Il y a un article absolument choquant dans le Daily Texan. Il s'agit d'un prof qui a des personnalités multiples! Joe-Bob: Corey, did you see? There's an absolutely shocking article in the Daily Texan. It's about a prof who has multiple personalities Corey: Ah oui, je l'ai eu le semestre passé. Bien sûr, j'ai raté mon examen, mais au moins ses conférences étaient plus amusantes que celles des autres profs. Corey: Ah, yes. I had him last semester. Of course, I failed my exam, but at least his lectures were more amusing than the other profs'.. 54

Verbs Introduction to Verbs page: v1 A verb may be defined as the 'action word of the sentence'. To determine whether a word is a verb or not, consider its role in the sentence.

55 Verbs Introduction to Verbs page: v1 A verb may be defined as the 'action word of the sentence'. To determine whether a word is a verb or not, consider its role in the sentence. How is the word 'access' used in the following sentences? Never give strangers access to your bank account. If you can't access the web pages during peak hours, try again. In the first sentence, 'access' is a thing (a noun) that you can give to somebody. In the second sentence, 'access' is something you do (a verb) with your computer. The point is that whether a word is considered a noun or a verb depends on how it is used in the sentence. infinitives and conjugations When you study verbs, you will need to know the difference between the infinitive form of the verb and the finite forms, or conjugated forms. English infinitives are preceded by the word 'to'. to eat, to dri nk, to sl eep These verbs are called infinitives because, like the concept of infinity, they are not bound by time. From the infinitive, we derive the conjugated forms of the verb, also known as the finite forms of the verb. They are called finite because they refer to events anchored in time, that is, to events that have a particular tense: past, present, future. Note the conjugated forms of the infinitive 'to study'. I studied French in high school. I am studying French in college this semester. I will study French next year overseas. present tense conjugation future tense conjugation past tense conjugation Verb conjugations are traditionally presented in textbooks according to paradigms, a grammatical term for pattern. A paradigm always includes the infinitive followed by the conjugations according to person which is divided into first, second and third, as well as number, which is the distinction between singular and plural. Here is the paradigm for the present tense of the French verb parl er, 'to speak'. parler singular plural 1st person je parle (I speak) nous parlons (we speak) 2nd person tu parles (you speak) vous parlez (you speak) 3rd person il/elle/on parle (he/she/it speaks) ils/elles parlent (they speak) Regular French verbs fall into three classes based on the last two letters of the verb. Each class has a particular pattern of conjugation. These classes of verbs are generally referred to as first conjugation, second conjugation and third conjunction. 55

56 first conjugati on (-er verbs) danser regarder to dance to watch second conjugati on (-ir verbs) finir obéir to finish to obey third conjugation (-re verbs) vendre entendre to sell to listen participles A participle is a special verb form that is derived from the infinitive but is not conjugated. In other words, while conjugations come in paradigms of six forms according to six different persons, participles have only two forms, named according to their uses: the present participle and the past participle. A present participle in French ends in -ant and is frequently used as an adjective. French present participles are usually translated by the -ing form of the English verb. Note that the adjectival form of the present participle must agree in number and gender with the noun it modifies. In the example, the participle is made to agree with the plural noun (les animaux) by adding -s. Les tatous sont des animaux fascinants. Armadillos are fascinating animals. A past participle in French is used to form compound tenses, such as the 'passé composé'. A past participle can also be used as an adjective in certain contexts. When used as an adjective, the participle agrees in number and gender with the noun it qualifies. Tex a perdu une lettre d'amour de Bette. Et Tammy a trouvé la lettre perdue! Tex lost a love letter from Bette. And Tammy found the lost letter! In the first example, the participle 'perdu' combines with the auxiliary verb to form the past tense of perdre (to lose). In the second example, the participle is used as an adjective to modify the noun 'la lettre'. Note how the final -e on the participle indicates agreement with the feminine noun. common auxi li ari es and modal s Auxiliaries, often called 'helping verbs', are verbs that combine with the main verb to form a verb phrase. There are two groups of auxiliary verbs: common auxiliaries and modals. The two common auxiliary verbs in French, avoi r (to have) and être (to be) are used to form many tenses. A tense that has only a main verb and no auxiliary is called a simple tense. A verb tense that is composed of a main verb and its auxiliary is called a compound tense. Joe-Bob écoute de la musique country. Joe-Bob a écouté de la musique country Joe-Bob listens to country music. Joe-Bob has listened to country music. 56

57 In the first example, the main verb 'écouter' is in the simple present tense. In the second example, the verb is in the compound past tense, a tense which combines the auxiliary verb 'avoir' with the past participle of 'écouter'. Modals are special auxiliary verbs that express the attitude of the speaker. In short, modal verbs are 'moody verbs'. For example, modal verbs indicate subtle shades of meaning concerning such things as the likelihood of an event or the moral obligation of an event. The most frequent modal verbs in English are the following: should, could, may, might, ought to, must. Note how the following modal verbs in French and English convey an attitude of increased urgency. Tex peut quitter la France. Tex devrait quitter la France! Tex doit quitter la France!! Tex can leave France. Tex should leave France! Tex must leave France!! transitive vs. intransitive verbs Transitive verbs require a direct object while intransitive verbs do not permit an object. A direct object is usually defined as the party which directly receives the action designated by the verb. The terms 'transitive' and 'intransitive' are derived from the grammatical term transitivity which refers to the transfer of an action from the subject (S) to the direct object (DO). Transitive Tex (S) écrit un poème (DO). Tex writes a poem. Intransitive Tex (S) sort. Tex goes out. French vs. English verbs There is one important difference between French and English verbs that often causes trouble for beginning language learners. There is a high frequency of English verbs which combine with a particle (typically a preposition) to express idiomatic meanings. English speakers can completely change the meaning of the verb by changing the particle. Consider the extremely versatile English verb 'to get'. GET + particle meaning french equivalent to get about to move around se déplacer to get better to recover se remettre to get out to leave sortir, descendre to get up to get out of bed se lever In order to convey the differences in meaning of the 'get + particle' constructions, note how French makes use of completely different verbs. As a consequence, when you translate such verbs from English into French, you must never translate word-for-word (i.e. translating the verb and particle separately). Since the verb and particle 'go together' in English, they must be translated as a unit in French. 57

- er verbs (regular) present tense page: ver1 There are three major groups of regular verbs in French: verbs with infinitives ending in -er, verbs with infinitives ending in -ir, and verbs with

Next, add the er endings to the stem. Different tenses have different endings. The endings given below (-e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent) are for forming the present tense.

58 - er verbs (regular) present tense page: ver1 There are three major groups of regular verbs in French: verbs with infinitives ending in -er, verbs with infinitives ending in -ir, and verbs with infinitives ending in -re. Since -er verbs are the most numerous, they are considered the first conjugation. To conjugate these verbs, drop the -er from the infinitive to form the stem. Next, add the er endings to the stem. Different tenses have different endings. The endings given below (-e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent) are for forming the present tense. The endings (-e, -es, -e, and -ent) are all silent. The only endings that are pronounced are the nous (-ons) and the vous (-ez) endings. The four silent endings form a boot shape in the verb conjugation. parler 'to speak' je parle tu parles il/elle/on parle nous parlons vous parlez ils/elles parlent past participle: parlé Note that the pronunciation of each of the verbs is the same even though the conjugations are spelled differently. Tex, il parle français? Mais c'est un tatou. Tex: Bien sûr je parle français ettammy, elle aussi, elle parle français. Eh bien dis donc, même les tatous parlent français au Texas? Tex speaks French? But he's an armadillo. Tex: Of course, I speak French and Tammy,too, she speaks French. Well, I'll be, even the armadillos speak French in Texas? Here is a list of common -er verbs: adorer, to adore aimer, to like aimermieux, to prefer chanter, to sing chercher,to look for danser, to dance demander,to ask détester,to hate, to detest donner,to give écouter, to listen to étudier, to study habiter, to live jouer, to play montrer, to show présenter, tointroduce regarder, to watch rencontrer, to meet (by chance) rester, to stay,remain téléphoner,to telephone travailler, to work trouver, to find Je changes to j' before a verb starting with a vowel or a silent h (ex.j'adore, j'habite). This phenomenon is known as élision. Tex: J'adore la musique rap et j'écoute souvent de la musique dans les clubs. I love rap music and I often listen to music in clubs. Je chante et je danse aussi I sing and I dance, too. 58

Note also that the s in plural pronouns (nous, vous, and ils/elles) is usually silent except when it is followed by a verb that begins with a vowel sound.

59 Note also that the s in plural pronouns (nous, vous, and ils/elles) is usually silent except when it is followed by a verb that begins with a vowel sound. In such a case the silent s is pronounced as a /z/ and links the pronoun to the verb. This phenomenon is called liaison ('linking') and is very characteristic of French. Tex et Tammy, ils écoutent de la musique cadienne avec Paw-Paw! Tammy: Nous adorons danser. Tex: Oui, oui, c'est vrai. Nous dansons beaucoup. Tex and Tammy, they listen to Cajun music with Paw- Paw! Tammy: We love to dance. Tex: Yes, yes, that's true. We dance a lot. 59

60 - er verbs (stem changing) present tense page: ver2 Spelling changes occur in the stems of several groups of -er verbs in the present tense. These spelling changes reflect the pronunciation of the present tense forms. You may have already noticed the spelling change in the verb s'appel er (Je m'appelle..., My name is...). For verbs like appeler (to call), rappeler (to call back) and jeter (to throw), the consonant -l or -t in the the stem doubles in all forms of the present tense, except in the first and second person plural (nous and vous). This follows the traditional boot pattern of -er verb conjugations in the present tense. appeler 'to call' j'appelle tu appelles il/elle/on appelle nous appelons vous appel ez ils/elles appell ent past participle : appelé This same "boot" pattern is repeated in spelling change verbs like préférer (to prefer). In these verbs the é in the last syllable of the stem changes to an è, except in the first and second person plural (nous and vous). préféreré 'to prefer' je préfère tu préfères nous préférons vous préférez il/elle/on préfère ils/elles préfèrent past participle : préféré Verbs conjugated like préférer include: considérer, to consider espérer, to hope régler, to regulate, pay, settle, adjust répéter, to repeat sécher, to dry, skip (a class) In verbs which are conjugated like acheter (to buy), the e in the last syllable of the stem also changes to an è, again with the exception of the first and second person plural forms. acheter 'to buy' j'achète tu achètes nous achetons vous achetez il/elle/on achète ils/elles achètent past participle : acheté 60

61 Verbs conjugated like acheter include: amener, to bring somebody (along) emmener, to take somebody (along) lever, to lift, raise mener, to take, lead peser, to weigh Another group of stem-changing verbs include those ending in -ayer, including essayer (to try) and payer (to pay). In these verbs the y changes to i in all persons except the first and second person plural (nous and vous). essayer 'to try' j'essai e tu essaies nous essayons vous essayez il/elle/on essai e ils/elles essai ent past participle : essayé Finally, verbs ending in -gerlike voyager (to travel) add an e after the g in the nous form of the present tense, so that the g is pronounced as a soft sound before the -ons ending (i.e. nous voyageons). Similarly, in verbs ending in -cer, commencer (to start), for example, the c in the nous form changes to ç to keep the soft c sound (nous commençons). voyager 'to travel je voyage tu voyages nous voyageons vous voyagez il/elle/on voyage ils/elles voyagent past participle: voyagé Other verbs in this category include: corriger, to correct exiger, to demand, require manger, to eat nager, to swim partager, to share ranger, to tidy up, arrange rédiger, to write, compose songer, to dream, reflect Quelle activité est-ce que vous préférez en été? Rita: J'emmène mes enfants à la piscine. Ses enfants: Nous nageons et nous mangeons de la glace. Tammy: Moi, je préfère faire du shopping. J'achète beaucoup et papa paie tout. What activitiy do you prefer in the summer? Rita: I take my children to the pool. Her children: We swim and we eat ice crean Tammy: Me, I prefer shopping. I buy lots and daddy pays for everything. 61

-ir verbs (regular) present tense page: vir1 Verbs with infinitives ending in -ir form a second group of regular verbs in French, often called 'second conjugation' verbs.

62 -ir verbs (regular) present tense page: vir1 Verbs with infinitives ending in -ir form a second group of regular verbs in French, often called 'second conjugation' verbs. To conjugate these verbs, drop the -ir from the infinitive and add the second conjugation present tense endings: - is, -is, -it, - issons, -issez, -issent. The singular and plural forms of the third person are clearly distinguishable (finit vs.finissent). finir 'to finish' je finis tu finis il/elle/on finit nous finissons vous finissez ils/elles fini ssent past participle : fini Here is a list of other common -ir verbs: choisir, to choose maigrir, to lose weight réfléchir, to think, reflect établir, to establish mincir, to get slimmer réunir, to get together, assemble grandir, to grow (up) obéir (à quelqu'un), to obey (someone) réussir (à), to succeed (at) grossir, to gain weight réagir, to react vieillir, to grow old Not all verbs ending in -ir follow this pattern,however. Irregular -ir verbs include ouvrir, partir, sortir, and dormir. Tex et Tammy réunissent des copains ce soir. Tammy: Quel vin tu choisis, Tex? Tex réfléchit un moment, et puis il choisit un bon vin rouge. Tex: Nous choisissons toujours du rouge. C'est bon pour la santé. Tex and Tammy are getting friends together this evening. Tammy: What wine do you choose, Tex? Tex reflects a moment and then he chooses a good red wine. Tex: We always choose red (wine). It's good for (one's) health. 62

-ir verbs (irregular) like ouvrir present tense page: vir2 A very limited group of verbs with infinitives ending in -ir are irregular, that is, they do not follow the pattern of regular - ir verbs

63 -ir verbs (irregular) like ouvrir present tense page: vir2 A very limited group of verbs with infinitives ending in -ir are irregular, that is, they do not follow the pattern of regular - ir verbs like finir. Verbs like ouvrir are conjugated instead like regular -er verbs. ouvrir 'to open' j'ouvre tu ouvres il/elle/on ouvre nous ouvrons vous ouvrez ils/elles ouvrent past participle: ouvert Verbs conjugated like ouvrir include: couvrir, to cover découvrir, to discover offrir, to offer, to give (a gift) souffrir, to suffer Note, too, that there is no s in the imperative 'tu' form of the second sentence, since it is conjugated like a regular -er verb in the imperative. Bette offre un cadeauà Tex. C'est son anniversaire aujourd'hui! Bette: Ouvre le paquet, Tex! Bette is giving Tex a gift. It's his birthday today! Bette: Open the package, Tex! 63

- ir verbs (irregular) partir, sortir, and dormir page: vir3 The verbs partir, sortir, and dormir are irregular in the present tense, that is, they are not conjugated like regular -ir verbs.

64 - ir verbs (irregular) partir, sortir, and dormir page: vir3 The verbs partir, sortir, and dormir are irregular in the present tense, that is, they are not conjugated like regular -ir verbs. partir 'to leave' je pars tu pars il/elle/on part nous partons vous partez ils/elles partent past participle : parti sortir 'to exit, go out' je sors tu sors il/elle/on sort nous sortons vous sortez ils/elles sortent past participle : sorti dormir 'to sleep' je dors tu dors il/elle/on dort nous dormons vous dormez ils/elles dorment past participle :dormi Bette: Tammy, tu pars ce week-end? weeken? Tammy: Oui, je pars pour la Louisiane avec Tex. Nous allons rendre visite à Paw-Paw. Samedi soir nous sortons danser et manger de la cuisine cadienne. Bette: Et Paw-Paw, il sort avec vous? Tammy: Non, il préfère rester à la maison pour dormir. Bette: Tammy, are you leaving this Tammy: Yes, I'm going to Louisianna with Tex. We're going to visit Paw-Paw. We're going out Saturday night to dance and eat some Cajun food. Bette: And does Paw-Paw go out with you? Tammy: No, he prefers to stay at home and sleep. 64

65 -re verbs (regular) page: vre1 Verbs with infinitives ending in -re form a third group of regular verbs, often called 'third conjugation' verbs. To form the present tense conjugations of these verbs, drop the -re from the infinitive and add the third conjugation endings (-s, -s, -, -ons, -ez, -ent) to the resulting stem. descendre 'to go down' je descends tu descends il/elle/on descend nous descendons vous descendez ils/elles descendent past participle: descendu Here is a list of common regular -re verbs: attendre, to wait for dépendre de, to depend (on) entendre, to hear pendre, to hang perdre, to lose rendre, to hand in, give back rendre visite à quel qu'un, to visit someone répondre, to answer, respond vendre, to sell Not all verbs ending in -re follow this pattern, however. Irregular -re verbs include prendre, mettre, suivre and vivre. Un flic descend la rue. Tex panique et file. Agent de police: Attendez! Attendez... Monsieur, vous vendez des T-shirts? Tex répond: Euh, oui, monsieur l'agent. Agent de police: Vous n'avez pas de permis. Hé, hé, vous êtes déporté. A cop is coming down the street. Tex panics and runs off. Policeman: Wait! Wait...Sir, are you selling t- shirts? Tex answers, "Yes, sir." Policeman: You do not have a permit. Hey, hey, you are deported. 65

-re verbs (irregular) like prendre page: vre2 Verbs like prendre are conjugated like regular -re verbs in the singular, but not in the plural. Note the difference in the stem in the plural forms.

66 -re verbs (irregular) like prendre page: vre2 Verbs like prendre are conjugated like regular -re verbs in the singular, but not in the plural. Note the difference in the stem in the plural forms. prendre 'to take' je prends tu prends il/elle/on prend nous prenons vous prenez ils/elles prennent past participle: pris Verbs conjugated like prendre include: apprendre, to learn comprendre, to understand surprendre, to surprise Edouard et Tammy surprennent Tex. Tammy: Qu'est-ce que tu fais, Tex? Tu vas où? Pourquoi tu prends un taxi? Tex: Uhh, je suis en retard. Uhh, je vais en classe. Aujourd'hui mes étudiants apprennent à chanter la Marseillaise! Edouard and Tammy surprise Tex. Tammy: What are you doing, Tex? Where are you going? Why are you taking a taxi? Tex: Uhh, I'm late. Uhh, I'm going to class. Today my students are learning to sing the Marseillaise! 66

67 -re verbs (irregular) like mettre page: vre3 The verb mettre is irregular. mettre 'to place, put' je mets tu mets il/elle/on met nous mettons vous mettez ils/elles mettent past participle : mi s Mettre literally means 'to place, to put.' It is also used in the following expressions: mettre la table (le couvert), to set the table mettre + article of clothing, to put on mettre + electrical item (radio, light), to turn on Other verbs like mettre include: admettre, to admit permettre, to permit promettre, to promise remettre, to turn in (a report), to postpone Tammy: Tex, tu mets la table pour la soirée? Tex: Non, je n'ai pas envie. Tammy: Ça alors. C'est toujours moi qui mets la table. Tammy: Tex, are you going to set the table for theparty? Tex: No. I don't feel like it. Tammy: Come on, I'm always the one who sets the table. 67

68 -re verbs (irregular) like suivre and vivre page: vre4 The verbs suivre (to follow), and vivre (to live) are irregular. suivre 'to follow' je suis tu suis il/elle/on suit nous suivons vous suivez ils/elles suivent past participle : sui vi Sui vre is also used in the expression sui vre un cours (to take a course). vivre 'to live, to be alive' je vis tu vis il/elle/on vi nous vi vons vous vivez ils/elles vivent past participle : vécu You may have seen the expression Vive... (as in Vi ve la France, Long live France!) and the noun la vie (life). Vi vre means 'to be alive,' as well as 'to live,' in contrast to the verb habi ter which refers only to where one lives, one's place of residence. Edouard accueille des clients au restaurant. Edouard: Bonsoir. Sui vez-moi, s'il vous plaît. Une heure plus tard, les clients attendent toujours. Client: Excusez, moi, mais le service est vraiment très lent. Edouard: La qualité, ça prend du temps, monsieur. Les fastfoods, quelle horreur. Vive la cuisine française! Edouard greets customers at the restaurant. Edouard: Good evening. Follow me, please. One hour later the clients are still waiting. Client: Excuse me, but the service is really very slow. Edouard: Quality takes time, monsieur. Fast food, how dreadful! Long live French cuisine! 68

pas un tatou! Tex est un tatou. Tex et Tammy sont des tatous. Toi et moi, nous ne sommes pas des tatous. Toi, tu es un écureuil et moi, je sui s un escargot, un escargot français.

69 etre to be page: virr1 The verb être is an irregular verb in the present tense. être 'to be' je sui s 'I am' tu es 'you are' il/elle/on est 'he/she/one is' nous sommes 'we are' vous êtes 'you are' ils/elles sont 'they are' past participle: été Edouard: Mais non, Joe-Bob, tu n'es pas un tatou! Tex est un tatou. Tex et Tammy sont des tatous. Toi et moi, nous ne sommes pas des tatous. Toi, tu es un écureuil et moi, je sui s un escargot, un escargot français. Edouard: But no, Joe-Bob, you are not an armadillo! Tex is an armadillo. Tex and Tammy are armadillos. You and I, we are not armadillos. You are a squirrel and I am a snail, a French snail. C'est (plural Ce sont) is a common expression used to describe and introduce people or things. See c'est vs. il/elle est for more information. Etre is also used as an auxiliary in compound tenses (passé composé with être, passé composé of pronominal verbs, plus-que-parfait, etc.) 69

70 avoir to have page: virr2 The verb avoir is irregular in the present tense. This liaison, or linking, is especially important in distinguishing il sont (they have) from the third person plural of être ils sont (they are). avoir 'to have' j'ai tu as il/elle/on a nousavons vousavez ils/elles ont past participle: eu Avoir is also used as an auxiliary in compound tenses (passé composé with avoir, plus-que-parfait, futur antérieur, etc.) Besides ownership, the verb avoir expresses age in French, unlike the English equivalent, which uses the verb 'to be.' Tex, tu as des frères et des soeurs? Tex: Oui, j'ai une soeur et un frère. Quel âge ont-ils? Tex: Ma soeur Rita a 30 ans et mon frère Trey a 16 ans. Tex, do you have brothers and sisters? Tex: Yes, I have a sister and a brother. How old are they? Tex: My sister Rita is 30 and my brother Trey is

71 Avoir expresions page: virr3 Avoir is used in the impersonal expression il y a, which means either 'there is' or 'there are.' il y a is used to express the existence of a person or a thing, or to make a list or inventory of persons or things. The indefinite article (un, une, des) is usually used with il y a. Tex: A Paris il y a une tour, la Tour Eiffel. En France il y a des cathédrales, des châteaux, des monuments anciens... Tex: In Paris there is a tower, the Eiffel Tower. In France there are cathedrals, castles, ancient monuments... The negative of il y a is il n'y a pas. The indefinite article (un une, des) becomes de or d' after this negative expression. This corresponds to the English word 'any.' Tex: Au Texas il n'y pas de cathédrales, il n'y pas de châteaux, il n'y pas de monuments anciens, Tammy: Mais il y a une tour à l'université du Texas à Austin. Tex: In Texas, there aren't any cathedrals, there aren't any castles, there aren't any ancient monuments, Tammy: But there is a tower at the University of Texas at Austin! Avoir is used in many idiomatic expressions. Note that the English translation often uses the verb 'to be' rather than 'to have.' avoir besoin de avoir envie de avoir l'intention de avoir faim avoir soif avoir chaud avoir froid avoir honte (de) avoir mal (à la tête, à la gorge, aux yeux) avoir raison avoir tort avoir sommeil to need to want (to do something), to feel like (doing something) to intend to (do something) to be hungry to be thirsty to be hot to be cold to be ashamed (of) to hurt (to have a headache, to have a sore throat, to have sore eyes) to be right to be wrong to be sleepy Bette: Tex, j'ai faim. Tex: il y a un café à côté. Allons prendre un sandwich. Tammy: Mais, Tex. Bette et moi, nous avons un examen demain. J'ai envie de vous accompagner, mais nous avons besoin d'étudier. En plus, j'ai toujours froid dans ce café. Bette: Tu as raison,tammy. Toi, tu as besoin d'étudier, mais pas moi. J'ai l'intention de manger. Ciao. Miau. Bette: Tex, I'm hungry. Tex: There's a café next door. Let's go have a sandwich. Tammy: But, Tex. Bette and I have a test tomorrow. I'd like to go with you, but we need to study. AND, I'm always cold in that cafe. Bette: You're, right, Tammy. You do need to study, but not me. I intend to eat. Ciao. Meow. 71

aller "to go" page: virr4 The verb aller is irregular in the present tense. This -s is pronounced as a /z/ to link with the vowel sound in the plural forms allons and allez.

72 aller "to go" page: virr4 The verb aller is irregular in the present tense. This -s is pronounced as a /z/ to link with the vowel sound in the plural forms allons and allez. aller 'to go' je vais tu vas il/elle/on va nous allons vous allez ils/elles vont past participle : al lé Aller literally means 'to go', but is used figuratively in salutations to say how one is doing. Corey: Salut, Joe-Bob, où vas -tu? Bob: Je vais au café. Corey: Mais, tu as cours maintenant. Joe-Bob: Oui, mais le prof est horrible, vraiment horrible! Corey: Attention! Il arrive! Joe-Bob: Ah, bonjour monsieur le professeur. Comment allez-vous aujourd'hui? Corey: Hey, Joe-Bob, where are you going? Joe- Joe-Bob: I'm going to a coffee shop. Corey: But, you have class right now. Joe-Bob: Yes but, the prof is horrible, really horrible. Corey: Watch out! He's coming! Joe-Bob: Oh, hello, professor. How are you today? 72

73 faire "to do, to make" page: virr5 The verb faire is irregular in the present tense. faire 'to do, to make' je fai s tu fai s il/elle/on fait nous faisons vous faites ils/elles font past participle : fait Note the vous form faites. It is unusual because it does not end in -ez. Faire is one of only three verbs where this is the case (The others are être: vous êtes, and di re: vous dites ). You may notice, too, the similarity in the third person plural forms of aller, être, and faire: ils vont (they go), ils sont (they are), and ils font (they do/make). Although faire is often used in a question, it does not automatically have to be used in the response. Tex: Salut tout le monde. Qu'est-ce qu'on fait? Corey: Pas grand-chose. Fiona: Nous ne faisons rien, absolument rien. Tex: Hey everyone. What's everybody doing? Corey: Not much. Fiona: We're not doing anything, absolutely nothing. Faire is used in many expressions, including weather, sports, and household tasks. 73

faire expressions page: virr6 The verb faire is used in many impersonal weather expressions. Quel temps fait-il? What's the weather like? Il fait beau. It's beautiful. Il fait chaud. It's hot.

Other weather expressions which do not use faire include: Il y a des nuages. It's cloudy. Il y a des orages. There are storms. Il y a de l'orage. It's stormy. Il pleut. It's raining. Il neige.

74 faire expressions page: virr6 The verb faire is used in many impersonal weather expressions. Quel temps fait-il? What's the weather like? Il fait beau. It's beautiful. Il fait chaud. It's hot. Il fait du brouillard. It's foggy. Il fait du soleil. It's sunny. Il fait du vent. It's windy. Il fait frai s. It's cool. Il fait froid. It's cold. Il fait mauvais. It's bad. Other weather expressions which do not use faire include: Il y a des nuages. It's cloudy. Il y a des orages. There are storms. Il y a de l'orage. It's stormy. Il pleut. It's raining. Il neige. It's snowing. Faire is also used to talk about sports and leisure activities. Here is a list of common expressions. faire de la bi ycl ette, to go bicycle riding faire du bateau, to go boating faire de la lecture, to read faire de la planche à voile, to go windsurfing faire des randonnées, to go hiking faire du ski, to go skiing faire du vélo, to go bicycle riding, cycling faire de la voile, to go sailing faire une promenade, to take a walk Faire is also used in many expressions dealing with household chores. faire des achats (du shoppi ng), to go shopping faire la cuisine, to do the cooking faire des courses, to run errands faire la l essive, to the laundry faire le lit, to make the bed faire le marché, to do the grocery shopping aire le ménage, to do the housework faire la vaisselle, to do the dishes 74

75 Quand il fait du soleil, Tex et Tammy font une promenade dans le parc. Quand il fait mauvais, Tex fait le ménage et Tammy fait de la lecture. When it's sunny, Tex and Tammy take a walk in the park. When the weather's bad, Tex does the housework and Tammy reads. 75

76 Venir 'to come' page: virr8 The verb venir is irregular in the present tense. The vowel is nasal in the singular, but not in the plural. venir 'to come' je viens tu viens il/elle/on vient nous venons vous venez ils/elles viennent past participle : venu Verbs conjugated like venir include: devenir, to become revenir, to come back tenir, to hold, keep tenir à, to value, care about, (+ infinitive, to be anxious to) Bette: Tiens, Tammy, qu'est-ce que tu deviens? Tammy: Oh, je prépare une grande fête pour l'anniversaire de Tex. Corey et Joe- Bob, ils viennent. Tout le monde vient, bien sûr, sauf Fiona. Elle n'est pas très sociable. Bette: Une fête... Eh bien moi, je suis très sociable. Miaou... Bette: Hey, Tammy, what have you been up to? (literally, what have you become) Tammy: Oh, I'm preparing a big party for Tex's birthday. Corey and Joe-Bob, they're coming. Everyone's coming, of course, except Fiona She's not very sociable. Bette: A party... hmm. Well, I am very sociable. Miaow... 76

77 Boire, croire, and voir page: virr9 The irregular verbs boire, croire, and voir have similar conjugations. boire 'to drink' je bois tu bois il/elle/on boit nous buvons vous buvez ils/elles boivent past participle : bu croire 'to believe' je crois tu crois il/elle/on croit nous croyons vous croyez ils/elles croient past participle : cru voir 'to see' je vois tu vois il/elle/on voit nous voyons vous voyez ils/elles voient past participle : vu Fiona: Corey, tu as l'air malade! Mais qu'est-ce que tu bois? Hé, tu m'entends? Tu me vois? Oh, là, là, je crois qu'il va crever! Fiona: Corey, you look sick! What are you drinking? Hey, do you hear me? Do you see me? Omigod, I think he's gonna croak! 77

78 savoir vs. connaître present tense page: virr10 The irregular verbs savoir and connaître both mean 'to know. savoir 'to know (a fact)' je sais tu sais il/elle/on sai t nous savons vous savez ils/elles savent past participle : su connaître 'to know, to be acquainted with' je connais tu connais il/elle/on connaît nous connaissons vous connaissez ils/elles connaissent past participle : connu Joe-Bob: Tex, explique-moi la différence entre savoir et connaître. Je ne comprends pas. Savoir and connaître are used in different contexts or to describe different degrees of knowledge. Savoir is used for facts, things known by heart, or abilities.when followed by an infinitive, savoi r indicates knowing how to do something.(je sais j ouer de l aguitare. ) Connaître is used for people and places and represents a personal acquaintance or familiarity. Joe-Bob: Tex, explain the difference between savoir and connaître to me. I don't understand. Tex: C'est très simple, Joe-Bob. On sai t des faits mais on connaît des gens et des endroits. Par exemple, je connais Tammy, la France et la Tour Eiffel. Joe-Bob: Oh, OK, et moi, je sais jouer de la guitare et je sais où se trouvel'université du Texas. Tex: Mais enfin, Joe-Bob, tu n'es pas aussi stupide qu'on le pense. Tex: It's very simple, Joe-Bob. One knows (with savoir) facts, but one knows (with connaître) people and places. For example, I know Tammy, France, the Eiffel Tower. Joe-Bob: Oh, OK, and I know how to play the guitar and I know where the University of Texas is located. Tex: Well, Joe-Bob. You aren't as stupid as they think. 78

79 dire, lire, and écrire present tense page: virr11 The irregular verbs dire, lire, and écrire have similar conjugations. dire 'to say' je dis tu dis il/elle/on dit nous disons vous dites ils/elles disent past participle : dit You may have already seen the verb di re in phrases like Comment dit-on...? (How do you say...?) and Qu'est-ce que ça veutdire? (What does that mean?) Di remeans 'to say' (to say something or to tell someone something) while parler means 'to speak' (to speak to someone about something, or to speak a language). Dire is often used to start a phrase or to get someone's attention (Dis, Tex, tu viens?, Hey, Tex, are you coming?). Note the vous form dites. It is unusual because it does not end in -ez. Dire is one of only three verbs where this is the case (The others are être: vous êtes, and faire: vous faites). The verb conduire (to drive) is conjugated like di re (je conduis, tu conduis, etc.) except that its past participle is conduit. lire 'to read' je lis tu lis il/elle/on lit nous lisons vous lisez ils/elles lisent past participle : lu écrire 'to write' j'écris tu écris il/elle/on écrit nous écrivons vous écrivez ils/elles écrivent past participle : écri t Other verbs conjugated like écrire include décrire (to describe) and s'inscrire (to register). Tammy: Dis, Tex, qu'est-ce que tu lis? Tex: Je lis de la poésie. Les poètes disent toujours la vérité. J'écris aussi des poèmes.et toi, Tammy, qu'est-ce que tu aimes lire? Tammy: Chéri, tu sais bien. J'aime lire des romans historique Tammy: Say, Tex, what are you reading? Tex: Oh, I'm reading poetry. Poets always tell the truth. I also write poems. Tammy, what do you like to read? Tammy: You know sweetheart. I like to read historical novels 79

80 Pronominal verbs page: vpr1 A pronominal verb is a verb that is accompanied by a reflexive pronoun. Pronominal verbs fall into three major classes based on their meaning: reflexive, idiomatic, and reciprocal. You have probably already seen the pronominal verb s'appeler (Comment t'appelles-tu? What is your name?). To conjugate pronominal verbs in the present tense, you need to pay attention to both the pronoun and the verb form. The verb is conjugated normally (here an -er verb) with addition of the reflexive pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se. se raser 'to shave oneself' je me rase tu te rases il/elle/on se rase nous nous rasons vous vous rasez ils/elles se rasent reflexive verbs Pronominal verbs often express reflexive actions, that is, the subject performs the action on itself. If the subject performs the action on someone else, the verb is not reflexive. Here is a list of common reflexive verbs: s'asseoir, to sit (down) s'appeler, to be called s'arrêter, to stop se brosser, to brush se coucher, to go to bed s'habiller, to get dressed se laver, to wash se lever, to get up se promener, to take a walk se réveiller, to wake up Compare the difference in meaning between se raser and raser in the following sentences. Note that English does not usually indicate reflexive meaning explicitly since it can be inferred from the context. However, if reflexive meaning is intended in French, then it must be explicitly stated by using a reflexive pronoun. Est-ce que Tex se rase? Mais non, Tex, c'est un tatou. Il n'a pas de cheveux. Qu'est-ce qu'il fait, Tex, avec le rasoir? Il rase Joe-Bob pour l'été. Does Tex shave? Why no, Tex is an armadillo. He has no hair. What's Tex doing with the razor? He's shaving Joe-Bob for the summer. To negate pronominal verbs, place the ne before the reflexive pronoun and the pas after the verb. When used with an auxiliary verb such as aimer (to like), the infinitive of a pronominal verb agrees with its subject. When pronominal verbs are used with parts of the body, they take the definite article (le, la, les) rather than the possessive article as in English: Tex se lave les mains. (Tex washes his hands.) Joe Bob: Edouard, est-ce que tu te rases? Edouard: Non, je ne me rase pas. Les escargots ne se rasent pas. Pourtant, nous nous lavons le visage tous les jours. Joe-Bob: Ah, tu as de la chance. Je déteste me raser. Joe Bob: Edouard, do you shave? Edouard: No, I don't shave. Snails don't shave. However we do wash our faces every day. Joe-Bob: Ah, you're lucky. I hate to shave. 80

Modal verbs - vouloir, pouvoir and devoir page: vm1 Vouloir, pouvoir and devoir are called modal verbs. When used with infinitives, they act as auxiliary verbs or semi-auxiliaries.

81 Modal verbs - vouloir, pouvoir and devoir page: vm1 Vouloir, pouvoir and devoir are called modal verbs. When used with infinitives, they act as auxiliary verbs or semi-auxiliaries. vouloir Vouloir expresses a strong will or desire; in the present tense it has the same feeling as a command. It is an irregular verb in the present tense. Note how the present tense forms a "boot"; the stems (in this case the vowels) change only in the nous and vous forms. vouloir 'to wish, want, will' je veux tu veux il/elle/on veut nous voulons vous voulez ils/elles veulent past participle: voulu Vouloir may be followed by an infinitive or a noun (Je veux du cal me, I want some quiet. Je veux dormi r, I want to sleep). This verb is also often paired with the adverb bi en to express the meaning "to be willing"(je veux bi en ). pouvoir Pouvoir expresses the physical ability or permission to do something ie possibility. It is also an irregular verb with formation similar to vouloir. The "boot" formation is also evident. pouvoir 'to be able, be permitted to' je peux tu peux il/elle/on peut nous pouvons vous pouvez ils/elles peuvent past participle: pu Pouvoir may be followed by an infinitive construction or may stand alone. As in English, pouvoir is used to give or to ask permission translated by the English "may" (Est-ce quej e peux m'asseoi r?, May I sit down?) It is important not to confuse the roles of pouvoir and savoir in French. Savoir expresses "to know how" whereas pouvoir expresses "to be able to." devoi r Devoir expresses obligation, probability and supposition but if followed by a noun, expresses the idea "to owe". This verb is irregular in its present form. Once again, the "boot" formation is seen with this verb; the stem changes in the 1st and 2nd person plural conjugations. devoir 'to have to, be supposed to/ to owe' je dois dois il/elle/on doit Nous devons devez ils/ells doivent past participle:dû 81

82 Impersonal verbs & expressions: faut, il est important... page: vim1 The impersonal pronoun il ('it') is used in French when an action has no agent, that is, when there is no person or animate being responsible for the action. The conjugated verb is always in the third person singular, no matter what tense the impersonal verb takes. Tex: Tiens, il pleut très fort! Tex: Wow, it is raining really hard! The action of the verb (pleut, 'is raining') is an impersonal, natural force. The impersonal pronoun il is often referred to as a 'dummy subject' because it fills the syntactic position of subject but doesn't have any real meaning. weather expressions Weather expressions in both French and English require impersonal subjects. The infinitive of 'weather verbs' can only be conjugated in the third person singular form (the il form). pleuvoir, to rain Il pleut. It's raining. neiger, to snow Il neige. It's snowing. grêler, to sleet Il grêle. It's sleeting. geler, to freeze Il gèle. It's freezing. bruiner, to drizzle Il bruine. It's drizzling. Weather conditions are also expressed in French using the verb faire followed by an adjective or noun. Of course, when the verb faire is used impersonally in such weather expressions, it can only be conjugated in the third person singular form (il fait). See faire expressions for a more complete list of weather expressions. Il fait chaud. Il fait du vent. Il fait beau. It's hot. It's windy. It's beautiful. falloir (il faut...) 'to be necessary' The verb falloir only exists in the impersonal form (il faut). It always expresses the notion of necessity or obligation which is translated into English in various ways ('must,' 'should,' 'have to'). Falloir may be followed by an infinitive as in (d), by a noun as in (c), or by a subordinate clause introduced by que as in (a); note that the verb in the subordinate clause in (a) requires the subjunctive mood. Finally, it may be preceded by a pronoun acting as an indirect object as in (b), a way to avoid the subjunctive. Comme la majorité des Français, Tex ne voit pas l'intérêt du scandale Lewinsky. Tammy (scandalisée): (a) Il faut que nous sachions la vérité. [faut que + clause] Like the majority of the French, Tex does not see the point of the Lewinsky scandal. Tammy (shocked): It is necessary that we know the truth. We should/must know the truth. (b) Il nous faut des preuves. [indirect object + faut] We need evidence. (c) Il faut une enquête. Tex: Mais tu sais bien ce qui s'est passé! [faut + noun] An investigation is necessary. Tex: But you know what happened! (d) Il faut te calmer. [faut + infinitive] It is necessary that you calm down. You have to calm down. 82

impersonal expressions wi th 'être' + [adjective] The impersonal subject il may appear with the verb être followed by an adjective and an infinitive.

Tammy: Il est difficile de comprendre ton humour. Tex: It's fun to read American newspapers! Tammy: It is difficult to understand your sense of humor.

83 impersonal expressions wi th 'être' + [adjective] The impersonal subject il may appear with the verb être followed by an adjective and an infinitive. Note that the infinitive is always introduced by the prepostion de in such impersonal expressions: Il est + [adjective] + de + [infinitive] Tex: Il est amusant de lire les journaux américains! Tammy: Il est difficile de comprendre ton humour. Tex: It's fun to read American newspapers! Tammy: It is difficult to understand your sense of humor. other common i mpersonal expressi ons Il y a, there is, there are il est + clock time (Il est deux heures, It's two o'clock.) Il s'agit de, to be about, to be a matter of, to be a question Il vaut mieux, to be better, to be advisable of Tammy: Il est 18 h. Regardons le journal télévisé. Il y a un reportage sur l'infidélité. Tex: Ah non, ça alors. Il s'agit seulement de tourmenter les présidents et les tatous! Il vaut mieux changer de chaîne! Tammy: It's 6 o'clock. Let's watch the news. There's a report on infidelity. Tex: Oh, no, not that. It's only about tormenting presidents and armadillos! It's better to change the channel! 83

partir, sortir, quitter and laisser page: vl1 The verbs partir, sortir, quitter and laisser all mean 'to leave' in English, but they have distinguishing nuances and uses in French.

84 partir, sortir, quitter and laisser page: vl1 The verbs partir, sortir, quitter and laisser all mean 'to leave' in English, but they have distinguishing nuances and uses in French. An important distinction among these verbs is the idea of transitivity. Partir and sortir are intransitive in this context; they do not take a direct object (but may be followed by a prepositional phrase). On the other hand, qui tter and laisser are transitive; they take a direct object in a sentence. partir Partir is an irregular -ir verb that conveys the particular meaning of 'leaving with the intention of going somewhere.' It is often followed by the preposition pour. Joe-Bob: Je pars pour College Station. Joe-Bob: I am leaving for College Station. sortir Sortir is an irregular -ir verb that conveys the particular meaning of 'going out or to exit from an enclosed space.' It is often followed by the preposition de. Bette: Je vais sortir ce soir. Corey sort de sa chambre sans fermer la porte. Bette: I'm going to go out tonight. Corey goes out of his room without locking the door. quitter Quitter is a regular -er verb that is used when 'leaving someone or someplace.' Tammy quitte la maison à 8 heures chaque matin. Rita quitte son mari. Tammy leaves the house at 8 o'clock every morning. Rita is leaving her husband. Note that quitter is a transitive verb, that is, it always takes a direct object: son mari or la maison in the examples above. Sortir is usually intransitive (no object), and needs the preposition de to express the idea of leaving from somewhere. 84

85 laisser Laisser is a regular -er verb that means 'to leave something or someone behind.' Rita: Les gosses laissent leurs jouets partout. Et toi, bon à rien, laisse-moi tranquille. Quelle vie de chien! Rita: The kids leave their toys everywhere. And you, good-for-nothing, leave me alone! What a dog's life! Consider the following dialogue: Tammy fait un cauchemar: Tex: Tammy, je pars maintenant pour la France. Je rentre à Lyon. Tammy: Tu me quittes mon chéri? Tex: Oui, Tammy c'est fini. Tammy: Mais non! Tex sort de l'appartement de Tammy. Mais il revient un moment plus tard. Tex: J'ai laissé mes cigarettes dans la cuisine. Puis il quitte l'appartement pour toujours. Tammy has a nightmare: Tex: Tammy, I'm leaving now for France. I'm going back to Lyon. Tammy: You're leaving me, darling? Tex: Yes, Tammy, it's over. Tammy: But, no! Tex leaves Tammy's apartment, but he comes back a minute later. Tex: I left my cigarettes in the kitchen. Then he leaves the apartment forever. 85

infinitive constructions page: vinf1 The infinitive expresses the idea or concept of a verb's meaning, without specifying a specific subject or point in time (tense).

Infinitive constructions may be categorized according to the following uses: as a noun The infinitive may sometimes function as a noun. For example, it may be the subject of a sentence.

86 infinitive constructions page: vinf1 The infinitive expresses the idea or concept of a verb's meaning, without specifying a specific subject or point in time (tense). In most cases, use of the infinitive in French corresponds to the English. Infinitive constructions may be categorized according to the following uses: as a noun The infinitive may sometimes function as a noun. For example, it may be the subject of a sentence. Note that the French infinitive is often translated as a gerund (the '- ing' form of the verb) in English. Joe-Bob: Etudier n'est pas facile! Joe-Bob: Studying is not easy! as an imperative (command) The infinitive may be used to give a written order when there is no specific addressee. You will often see this form on signs. Ne pas marcher sur l'herbe. Do not walk on the grass. after verbs The infinitive is often used directly after these conjugated verbs: Verbs of movement: (In this category, the infinitive indicates purpose.) Verbs of preference: Verbs of opinion: Verbs of perception: Verbs of ability, obligation and necessity: all er, descendre, partir, rentrer, retourner, revenir, sortir, venir, etc. adorer, aimer, désirer, détester, préférer, vouloir compter, croire, espérer, nier, penser, valoir mieux (impersonal: il vaut mieux) écouter, entendre, regarder, sentir, voi r avoir beau (to do something in vain), devoir, faillir (to almost do something), falloir (impersonal: il faut) pouvoir, savoir 86

87 Tex et ses amis sortent dîner. Tex compte savourer un bon dîner français, mais Joe-Bob veut manger un hamburger. Edouard les écoute discuter un moment et puis il dit: J'ai failli manger un hamburger une fois. Non, je ne peux pas faire ça, tout de même. Il faut trouver un vrai restaurant français. Tex and his friends are going out to have dinner. Tex is counting on enjoying a good French dinner, but Joe-Bob wants to eat a hamburger. Edouard listens to them discuss for a moment and then he says: I almost ate a hamburger once. No, I really can't do that. We have to find a real French restaurant. after prepositions The infinitive is the verb form generally used after a preposition in French. The infinitive expresses purpose when it is used after pour or afin de. In the case of avant de and sans, the English translation is often a conjugated verb (Before they left), or a present participle (Before leaving), rather than the English infinitive. The infinitive follows the preposition par after the verbs commencer and finir. pour or afi n de avant de and sans par Tammy arrive pour sortir avec Tex et ses amis. Avant de partir, ils lui demandent de choisir un restaurant. Elle commence par suggérer le nouveau restaurant thaï. Tex et ses copains parlent sans écouter Tammy. Elle finit par comprendre que choisir un restaurant était impossible. Tammy arrives [in order] to go out with Tex and his friends. Before leaving, they ask her to choose a restaurant. She starts by suggesting the new Thai restaurant. Tex and his friends talk without listening to Tammy. She finally understands that choosing a restaurant was impossible. Note that the preposition en is followed by a present participle, not the infinitive. (En sortant, Joe-Bob a dit au revoir. On leaving, Joe-Bob said good-bye.) The infinitive may be used to complete the sense of an adjective or a pronoun. Generally infinitives following a noun or adjective are preceded by the preposition de. (Edouard ne serait pas content de manger un hamburger. Edouard would not be happy to eat a hamburger.) However, adjectives and nouns are followed by the preposition à + i nfi ni ti ve to indicate a passive sense or a function: C'est bon à manger. (It's good to eat.), une salle à manger (dining room), de l'eau à boire (drinking water). verbs followed by 'à' before an infinitive When the following verbs are followed by an infinitive, the preposition à is required: aider à, to help to s'amuser à, to have fun at apprendre à, to learn to arriver à, to succeed in, to manage to s'attendre à, to expect to chercher à, to try to, to attempt to commencer à, to start to se décider à, to make up one's mind to encourager à, to encourage to s'habituer à, to get used to hésiter à, to hesitate to inviter à, to invite to se mettre à, to start to se préparer à, to prepare to renoncer à, to give up réussir à, to succeed at servir à, to be used for tenir à, to be anxious to, to be eager to 87

Causative faire page: virr7 The causative faire construction (faire + infinitif) indicates that the subject 'causes' an action to be done by someone or something else.

(himself) But no, Tex doesn't know how to fix cars. Tex is having his car fixed at a garage.

88 Causative faire page: virr7 The causative faire construction (faire + infinitif) indicates that the subject 'causes' an action to be done by someone or something else. Contrast the following sentences: Tex répare sa voiture? Mais non, Tex ne sait pas réparer les voitures. Tex fait réparer sa voiture au garage. Tex is fixing his car? (himself) But no, Tex doesn't know how to fix cars. Tex is having his car fixed at a garage. (by a mechanic) In causative constructions the verb faire may be conjugated in any tense, for example the periphrastic future (futur proche) or the passé composé (Tex va faire réparer sa voiture. Tex a fait réparer sa voiture. etc.) objects in causative faire constructions The causative faire construction is often followed by noun or pronoun objects. If there is one object, it is a direct object (sa voiture in the example above, or Tammy in the first sentence below). In the case of two objects, as in the second sentence below, one will be direct (la Marseillaise) and the other indirect (Tammy). Tex fait chanter Tammy. Tex fait chanter la Marseillaise à Tammy. Tex makes Tammy sing. Tex makes Tammy sing the Marseillaise. pronouns Object pronouns precede faire, except in the affirmative imperative. Note the position of the pronouns in the following examples. Tex la fait réparer. Tex la fait chanter. Corey: Fais-la chanter! Tex is having it fixed. (his car) Tex makes her sing. (Tammy) Corey: Have her sing! Tammy: Allons, enfants de la patrie... Tammy: Allons, enfants de la patrie... Joe-Bob: Ne la fais pas chanter! Joe-Bob: Don't have her sing! 'se faire' + infinitive Another causative construction involves the use of se fai re + i nfi ni ti ve to indicate something a person or thing has done to himself. Rita s'est fait faire une robe noire pour l'enterrement de ses parents. Rita had a black dress made (for herself) for the funeral of her parents. However, sometimes this construction may be used to describe actions that happen inadvertently, despite the wishes of the subject. Tex explains what happened: Tex: Mes parents se sont fait écraser par un camion. Tex: My parents were killed by a truck. (They got themselves run over by a truck.) Note that the past participle fai t is always invariable in the causative construction. 88

89 transitive vs. intransitive definitions: transitive direct, transitive indirect, intransitive page: vti1 Transitive verbs by definition have an object, either a direct object or an indirect object. Intransitive verbs never have objects. A transitive-direct verb acts directly on its object. In the first sentence below, the telephone is the direct object. The verb 'entendre' (to hear) always takes an object; one hears someone or something. A transitive-indirect verb acts to or for its object. Tex is the object of the preposition à in the second sentence since Joe- Bob is talking to him. Intransitive verbs, on the other hand, have no object at all. The verb dormir (to sleep) in the last example, does not need any object to complete it. In fact, because the verb is intransitive, it cannot take an object. Intransitive verbs (as well as transitive ones) may be modified by adverbs or prepositional phrases: 'Joe-Bob sleeps in the car; he sleeps all the time.' Tex entend le téléphone. transitive-direct Tex hears the telephone. Joe-Bob parle à Tex. transitive-indirect Job-Bob is talking to Tex. Joe-Bob dort souvent au volant. intransitive Joe-Bob often sleeps at the wheel. For more examples and discussion, review the remarks on transitive vs intransitive verbs in the introduction. transitive verbs Because transitivity has to do with meaning, most English and French verbs usually maintain the same distinction. Thus, verbs that are transitive in English are also transitive in French, and verbs that are intransitive in French are also intransitive in English. The following examples are transitive in both French and English. Tex mange un croissant et il boit du café. Il finit son petit déjeuner et il lit le journal. Dring, dring. C'est Joe- Bob au téléphone. Tex is eating a croissant and drinking some coffee. He is finishing his breakfast and reading the newspaper. Ring, ring. It's Joe-Bob on the telephone. special cases di rect obj ect in French / preposition + obj ect in English There are, however, special cases where the transitivity of French and English verbs contrast. There are several very common verbs which take a direct object in French, while the English equivalent is followed by a preposition (at, to, for) and object. REDCAP is an acronym for the most frequent verbs in this category: Regarder, Ecouter, Demander, Chercher, Attendre, Payer. Joe-Bob explains what happened: Joe-Bob: Je roulais en voiture. Je regardais les filles. J'écoutais de la musique country à la radio. Et puis, oh, là là. J'ai eu un accident de voiture. La police est arrivée et le flic m'a demandé mes papiers. J'ai cherché ma carte d'identité, mais je ne l'ai pas trouvée. Pas de chance! Je suis au commissariat et j'attends mon avocat. Tex, j'espère que tu vas payer la contravention! Joe-Bob: I was driving along. I was looking at girls. I was listening to country music on the radio. And then, oh, la, la. I had an accident. The police came and the cop asked for my papers. I l ooked for my ID, but I didn't find it. No luck! I'm at the police station and I'm waiting for my lawyer. Tex, I hope that you will pay for the ticket. 89

preposition + object in French/direct object in English There are also several verbs which have a preposition and object in French, whereas the English equivalent takes a direct object.

90 preposition + object in French/direct object in English There are also several verbs which have a preposition and object in French, whereas the English equivalent takes a direct object. Joe-Bob téléphone à Tex. Joe-Bob tel ephones à Tex. Here are examples of such verbs. These are discussed more fully with indirect objects and indirect object pronouns. obéir à, to obey pardonner à, to pardon, to forgive rendre vi si te à, to visit (someone) renoncer à, to give up, renounce répondre à, to answer rési ster à, to resist ressembl er à, to resemble téléphoner à, to telephone stated and implied objects For many transitive verbs, in both French and English, the object is sometimes implied or understood. Do not be concerned about labelling these verbs, since the meaning will be clear from the context; and, like most verbs, they will form their passé composé with avoir. transitive verb / implied object En voiture, Joe-Bob chante toujours. (Joe- Bob always sings in the car.) Il parl e fort. (He talks loudly.) Il rêve. (He dreams.) Il grignotte tout le temps. (He snacks all the time.) transitive verb / stated object En voiture, Joe-Bob chante toujours Freebird. (Joe-Bob always sings Freebird in the car.) Il parle anglais. (He speaks English.) Il rêve de hamburgers et de filles. (He dreams of hamburgers and girls.) Il grignotte des cacahouettes. (He snacks on peanuts.) intransitive verbs Perhaps you have already seen verbs which use être to form the passé composé. These être verbs (aller, arriver, partir, sortir, etc.) are the most frequent intransitive verbs and they are summarized in the Alamo d'être. Etre verbs are often described as verbs of motion, but it's important to note that there are many other intransitive verbs of motion which use the auxiliary avoir, for example, 'marcher' (to walk) and 'courir' (to run): 'Tex a marché vite. Les enfants de Rita ont couru.' transitive or intransitive Some verbs may be either transitive or intransitive. Contrast the following verbs. Note that the verb sortir uses the auxiliary verb être in the passé composé as an intransitive verb, but avoir in the passé composé when it is used transitively. intransitive/no object Le week-end passé, Joe-Bob est sorti. (Last weekend Joe-Bob went out.) Au commissariat, la tension de Joe-Bob monte. (At the police station Joe-Bob's blood pressure goes up.) transitive/used with an object Le week-end passé, Joe-Bob a sorti son beau camion. (Last weekend Joe-Bob took out his fine truck.) Joe-Bob monte l'escalier. (Joe-Bob goes up the stairs.) 90

91 There are several cases where a verb which may be transitive or intransitive in English must be translated by two different verbs in French: 'to return' (retourner, rendre), 'to leave' (partir, laisser, quitter). verbs with direct and indirect objects Many transitive verbs may have both a direct and an indirect object, for example: Tex donne des conseils à Joe-Bob. Tex gives advice to Joe-Bob. Here is a list of some common bivalent verbs: acheter, to buy apporter, to bring apprendre, to learn demander, to ask donner, to give écrire, to write emprunter, to borrow envoyer, to send expliquer, to explain montrer, to show offrir, to offer (give) prêter, to lend promettre, to promise rendre, to give back servir, to serve vendre, to sell 91

Present participle page: vpp1 The present participle is formed by dropping the -ons ending from the nous form in the present tense and adding -ant. Present participles are invariable.

92 Present participle page: vpp1 The present participle is formed by dropping the -ons ending from the nous form in the present tense and adding -ant. Present participles are invariable. regular formation chanter (nous chantons) finir (nous finissons) lire (nous lisons) boire (nous buvons) suivre (nous suivons) commencer (nous commençons) manger (nous mangeons) se laver (nous nous lavons) chantant fi ni ssant li sant buvant sui vant commençant mangeant se lavant Only three verbs, être, avoi r and savoi r, have irregular present participles. irregular present participles être:étant avoir: ayant savoir: sachant The present participle can be used to modify a noun, similar in meaning to either a relative clause with qui + conjugated verb or a relative clause with puisque. Tex: Les tatous ayant une voiture ont beaucoup de succès avec les filles. (Les tatous qui ont une voiture ont beaucoup de succès avec les filles.) Tex: Tammy étant absente, je peux t'emmener faire une balade envoiture, Bette. Armadillos who have a car are very successful with girls. Since Tammy is not here, I can take you on a ride in my car, Bette. (Puisque Tammy est absente, je peux t'emmener faire une balade en voiture, Bette.) En + present participle, commonly known as the gerund form, is used to indicate that two actions are simultaneously performed by the same subject. This corresponds to the English 'while', 'upon', or 'by'. Tex drague les filles en conduisant sa décapotable. Tex conduit en écoutant la radio. Tex hits on girls by driving his convertible. Tex drives while listening to the radio. Tout en + present participle is used to stress that two actions are simultaneous (and sometimes contradictory). Remember to make the liaison between tout and en. Tex siffle tout en conduisant. Tex drague Bette tout en pensant à Tammy. Tex whistles and drives at the same time. Tex hits on Bette, all the while thinking of Tammy. 92

93 Note that the English -ing forms are usually translated by an infinitive construction in French rather than a present participle. For example: Before coming to Texas, Tex did not like kitties. But Tex is changing his mind. Avant de veni r au Texas, Tex n'aimait pas les minettes. Mais Tex est entrain de changer d'avis. 93

Negation Introduction to Negation page: neg1 Negation is a grammatical term for the contradiction of some or all of the meaning of an affirmative (positive) sentence.

94 Negation Introduction to Negation page: neg1 Negation is a grammatical term for the contradiction of some or all of the meaning of an affirmative (positive) sentence. In English, a sentence is commonly negated by inserting a single negative word (not, don't, didn't, won't, etc.) into the appropriate place in the sentence. In French, a sentence is commonly negated by inserting two words. basic negation Ne... pas is placed around the conjugated verb to negate an affirmative sentence in French. Note that the ne changes to n' before a verb beginning with a vowel. Joe-Bob, l'écureuil, court vite. l'escargot, ne court pas vite. Joe-Bob, the squirrel, runs fast. Edouard, Edouard the snail doesn't run fast. Trey aime le rap. Joe-Bob n'aime pas le rap. Trey likes rap. Joe-Bob doesn't like rap. alternate forms of negation There are many other French words that one can use to negate a positive statement besides the basic form ne... pas. Moreover, negative words can be used to contradict the verb as well as other parts of the original affirmative sentence. Joe-Bob écoute de la musique country. n'écoute jamais de musique country. n'écoute que du rap. Fiona n'écoute ri en. Presque persone n'écoute de musique country en France. Joe-Bob listens to country. Tex Tex never listens to country. Trey Trey only listens to rap. Fiona listens to nothing. Almost nobody listens to country music in France. 94

Basic Negation: ne... pas page: neg2 Basic negation is formed by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb. Ne becomes n' in front of a verb starting with a vowel or a mute h.

95 Basic Negation: ne... pas page: neg2 Basic negation is formed by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb. Ne becomes n' in front of a verb starting with a vowel or a mute h. Tex: Tu ne vas pas en cours aujourd'hui, Tammy? Tammy: Non. Je ne vais pas bien. Je ne peux pas manger et j'ai mal à la tête. Tex: Tu n'as pas de chance! Ce soir, il y a une fête chez Edouard! Tammy: Tu n'es pas d'un grand réconfort, tu sais! Tex: You're not going to class today Tammy? Tammy: No. I am not well. I cannot eat and I have a headache. Tex: That's too bad [literally 'you are not lucky']! Tonight there is a party at Edouard's! Tammy: You are not a lot of comfort, you know! In compound tenses, like the passé composé, the ne... pas are also placed around the conjugated verb, which is the auxiliary, avoir or être. In the periphrastic future, ne... pas goes around the verb aller. Tex n'a pas été très gentil. Tammy ne va pas passer la soirée chez Edouard. Tex was not very nice. Tammy is not going to spend the evening at Edouard's. Note that in spoken French, the ne/n' is sometimes dropped. In familiar speech, tu is often pronounced as t' before a vowel. Tammy: Tex, t'es (tu es) pas très gentil. Tammy: Tex, you are not very nice. 95

alternate forms (1) ne... jamais, rien, personne, etc. page: neg3 Different nuances of negation are achieved by using the following negative expressions: ne... j amais ne... pas encore ne... rien ne.

.. pas du tout never, not ever not yet nothing, not anything nobody, no one, not anybody no more, not any longer not at all Note that ne becomes n' in front of a verb starting with a vowel or a mute h.

96 alternate forms (1) ne... jamais, rien, personne, etc. page: neg3 Different nuances of negation are achieved by using the following negative expressions: ne... j amais ne... pas encore ne... rien ne... personne ne... plus ne... pas du tout never, not ever not yet nothing, not anything nobody, no one, not anybody no more, not any longer not at all Note that ne becomes n' in front of a verb starting with a vowel or a mute h. In spoken French, the ne / n' is sometimes dropped. The second element of the negation is usually placed right after the conjugated verb and before the object, as in this dialogue: C'est dimanche matin. Tammy: Tex, tu es réveillé? Tex: Non, je ne suis pas réveillé. Tammy: Tu dors encore? Tex: Maintenant, je ne dors plus! Avec toi, je ne peux jamais faire la grasse matinée! Tammy: Mais regarde, je t'apporte une tasse de café et un croissant. Tex: Non merci, je ne veux rien. Je n'ai pas du tout faim. Tammy: Eh bien, tu es charmant ce matin. morning. It is Sunday morning. Tammy: Tex are you awake? Tex: No, I am not awake. Tammy: Are you still asleep? Tex: Now I am no longer alseep! With you I can never sleep in! Tammy: But look, I'm bringing you a cup of coffee and a croissant. Tex: No thanks, I don't want anything. I am not hungry at all. Tammy: Well, aren't you charming this Personne and rien are negative pronouns; they may function as the subject or direct object of a sentence, or as the object of a preposition. When personne is an object, it is placed after the verb or the preposition it complements: Ce matin, Tex ne veut voir personne. Il ne veut parler à personne. Il ne pense à rien. This morning Tex does not want to see anybody. He does not want to talk to anybody. He's not thinking about anything. Personne and rien may be used at the beginning of a sentence, as pronoun subjects, followed by ne / n': Personne n'aime se lever tôt un dimanche. Ri en n'est pire. Nobody likes to get up early on a Sunday. Nothing is worse. Some of the negations listed above can be combined, as shown in these examples: Tammy: Je ne te ferai plus jamais le petit- déjeuner. Tex: Mais Tammy, tu sais que je ne prends jamais rien au petit-déjeuner. Tammy: I will never make your breakfast again. Tex: But Tammy, you know I never have anything for breakfast. 96

alternate forms (2) ne... aucun, ni... ni, que Ne / n'... aucun(e) + noun conveys the idea of 'absolutely no, not a single' + noun. Aucun agrees in gender with the word that follows.

97 alternate forms (2) ne... aucun, ni... ni, que Ne / n'... aucun(e) + noun conveys the idea of 'absolutely no, not a single' + noun. Aucun agrees in gender with the word that follows. page: neg4 Bette: Alors Tex, Tammy est malade? Tex: Aucune idée. Je suis passé chez elle hier soir et il n'y avait personne. Je n'ai reçu aucun coup de téléphone et aucune nouvelle depuis deux jours... Bette: So Tex, is Tammy ill? Tex: I have no idea. I went to her place last night and there was nobody there. I have received no phone call and no news for two days... Ne... ni... ni is commonly translated as 'neither... nor'. It is used in a similar way as the English expression. Note, however, that in French the verb has to be preceded by ne (or n' in front of a vowel or a mute h). Bette: Et moi, je n'ai vu Tammy ni hier ni aujourd'hui. Tex: Ni moi ni Fiona n'avons vu Tammy hier. Et aujourd'hui, Tammy ne m'a ni téléphoné ni écrit un e- mail. Je m'inquiète. Tu crois qu'elle est partie avec un autre tatou? Bette: And me, I saw Tammy neither yesterday nor today. Tex: Neither I nor Fiona saw her yesterday. And today, Tammy neither called me nor wrote me an . I am worried. Do you think she left with another armadillo? Ne... que is used to express a restriction. It is usually translated as 'only'. Bette: Peut-être... Après tout, cela ne fait qu' un an que vous êtes ensemble... Tex: Oh, merci Bette! Il n'y a que toi pour dire des choses pareilles! Bette: Maybe... After all it has only been a year that you've been together... Tex: Oh, thanks Bette! Only you can say such things! 97

98 one-word negative sentences si, jamais, etc. Oui is a 'yes' answer to an affirmative question, while si is a 'yes' to a negative question. page: neg5 Chez Tammy: Tex: Tammy, tu es là? Tammy: Oui. Tex: Tu ne m'aimes plus? Tammy: Si, un peu. At Tammy's house: Tex: Tammy, are you there? Tammy: Yes. Tex: You don't love me anymore? Tammy: Yes, I do, a little. Non is a one-word negative answer to a yes / no question; pas, by itself, negates part of a sentence: Tex: Tammy, tu es malade? Tammy: Non! Tex: Tu es fâchée? Tammy: Pas vraiment. Tex: Tammy, are you sick? Tammy: No! Tex: Are you mad? Tammy: Not really. Rien (nothing), personne (no one), and jamais (never) may be used in one-word answers: Tex: Tammy, qu'est-ce que tu fais? doing? Tammy: Rien! Tex: Qui est avec toi? Tammy: Personne! Tex: Tu vas me quitter pour un autre? Tammy: Jamais! Tex: Tammy, what are you Tammy: Nothing! Tex: Who is with you? Tammy: No one! Tex: Are you going to leave me for another? Tammy: Never! 98

Introduction to Prepositions page: pre1 A preposition is a word used to establish relationships between nouns, between nouns and verbs and between different parts of a sentence.

99 Introduction to Prepositions page: pre1 A preposition is a word used to establish relationships between nouns, between nouns and verbs and between different parts of a sentence. Prepositions usually have spatial or temporal meanings (e.g. beneath, between, in front of, before, after, during, etc). Prepositions are invariable, that is, they have one form with the exception of à and de which contract with the definite articles (le, la, les). Translating prepositions is notoriously tricky. Never assume that French will use the same preposition as English to express a particular meaning. In fact, there are many cases where one language requires a preposition where the other does not. This is particularly problematic with infinitives followed by prepositions. In general, it is best to treat prepositions as vocabulary items requiring memorization. In the following sentences, these problems are demonstrated by translating the French prepositions literally. Note how awkward the English translation is as a result. Bette est fâchée contre Tammy. Bette is angry at Tammy. Tex téléphone à Joe-Bob. Tex telephones Joe-Bob. Bette is angry against Tammy. Tex telephones to Joe-Bob. Literal translations are also awkward in situations where a preposition is not used in French but is required in English. Fiona attend le bus. Fiona waits for the bus. Joe-Bob écoute la radio. Joe-Bob listens to the radio. Fiona waits the bus. Joe-Bob listens the radio. 99

100 common prepositions page: pre1a Prepositions are used to establish relationships between nouns, between nouns and verbs, and between different parts of a sentence. À (to) and de (from, about) are the most common prepositions in French. They form contractions with definite articles: Tex parle aux étudiants. Il parle des devoirs. Il regarde la question en haut du tableau. (Tex talks to the students. He is talking about homework. He is looking at the question at the top of the blackboard.) When prepositions have literal, spatial meanings, using them is straightforward: sur (on), sous (under), avec (with), sans (without). There are, in addition, many idiomatic uses of prepositions, especially à and de. Dictionaries include listings of idiomatic meanings. In addition to prepositions + noun (or pronoun) objects, discussed here, there are specific guidelines for using prepositions with place names. Finally, many prepositions, including some on this page, may be followed by infinitives. à = to, at See contractions with definite articles, the use of à with place names, and à + infinitive. Tex parle à ses amis au café. Ils vont à Opelousas. Tex is talking to his friends at the café. They're going to Opelousas. à cause de = because of, due to The preposition à cause de is followed by a noun, whereas the conjunction parce que (because) is followed by a subordinate clause. Ils vont en Louisiane à cause de la fête. They're going to Louisiana because of the celebration. au centre de = at the center of Opelousas se trouve au centre de la Louisiane. Opelousas is in the center of Louisiana. à côté de = beside Bette veut s'asseoir à côté de Tex. Bette wants to sit beside Tex. à droite de = to the right of, on the right of Tammy est à droite de PawPaw Louis. Tammy is on PawPaw Louis' right. à gauche de = to the left of, on the left of Tex est à gauche de PawPaw. Tex is on PawPaw's left. 100

101 après = after (temporal) See also après used in past infinitive constructions. Après le dîner, ils vont danser. After dinner, they're going dancing. à travers = across, through Tammy voit Bette à travers la foule. Tammy sees Bette through the crowd. au milieu de = in the middle of PawPaw danse au mi lieu de la salle. PawPaw is dancing in the middle of the room. au sujet de / à propos de = on the subject of; about Paw-Paw parle au suj et de la Résistance et à propos de sa longue vie de séducteur. PawPaw is talking about the Resistance and about his long life as a womanizer. autour de = surrounding, around Les amis sont assis autour de la table. The friends are seated around the table. avant = before [temporal] Contrast avant with devant meaning 'before' in a spatial sense. See also avant de + infinitive. Ils ne vont pas se coucher avant cinq heures du matin. They are not going to bed before five o'clock in the morning. avec = with Avec + noun is often translated as an '-ly' adverb: avec joie (joyfully). Tex est en Louisiane avec ses amis. Ils dansent avec joie à l'anniversaire de PawPaw. Tex is in Louisiana with his friends. They are dancing joyfully at PawPaw's birthday celebration. chez = 'at X's (house), at the house of, at the store of; to X's (house), to the store of' Chez may refer to individual's homes as well as to someone's shop, as in the first example below. When applied to larger groups of people, such as nationalities, it means among: Chez nous les Texans, on adore la sauce piquante = "We Texans love hot sauce" (literally: Among us Texans we love hot sauce). Le lendemain matin, ils vont acheter des croissants chez le boulanger. Tout le monde a adoré le séjour chez Paw- Paw. Après un an à Austin, Tex se sent vraiment à l'aise chez les Texans. The next morning they are going to buy croissants at the baker's. Everyone loved their stay at Paw-Paw's. After a year in Austin, Tex really feels at ease with (among) Texans 101

contre = against Contre is used in several idiomatic expressions. Bette a dansé tout contre Tex. Tammy est en colère contre Bette; elle se fâche contre Tex. Tammy est contre la bigamie.

102 contre = against Contre is used in several idiomatic expressions. Bette a dansé tout contre Tex. Tammy est en colère contre Bette; elle se fâche contre Tex. Tammy est contre la bigamie. Bette danced right against Tex. Tammy is mad at Bette; she's getting angry with Tex. Tammy is against bigamy. dans = in Dans is always followed by a determiner (definite, indefinite or possessive). See also en. Tammy est dans la cuisine. Elle prépare le dîner pour Tex qui arrive dans une heure. Tammy's in the kitchen. She's cooking dinner for Tex who's coming in one hour. d'après = according to D'après Edouard, les Américains mangent très mal. Mais Tammy cuisine bien! According to Edouard, Americans eat very poorly. But Tammy cooks well. de = of, from, about See also the use of de with place names and de + infinitive. Au dîner, Tex et Tammy parlent de leur voyage en Louisiane. At dinner, Tex and Tammy talk about their trip to Louisiana. de l'autre côté de = on the other side of Puis ils font une promenade et regardent les gratte-ciel de l 'autre côté du fleuve. Then they take a walk and look at the skyscrapers on the other side of the river. derri ère = in back of, behind (spatial) Ils admirent le soleil se coucher derri ère les collines. They admire the sun setting behind the hills. devant = in front of, before (spatial sense) Contrast devant with avant (temporal sense). Enfin, ils s'embrassent passionément devant le Capitole. Finally, they kiss passionately in front of the Capitol. 102

en = in En means 'in' and immediately precedes the noun (i.e., it does not require a determiner; it is followed directly by its object, for example, en France).

103 en = in En means 'in' and immediately precedes the noun (i.e., it does not require a determiner; it is followed directly by its object, for example, en France). It is also used in many idiomatic expressions: Tex roule en voiture (Tex is driving in a car); Trey vient en vélo (Trey comes on a bike); and in some time expressions: en automne (in the fall); en août (in August). Compare with dans. See also the use of en with place names and en with a present participle. en bas de = at the bottom of, at the end of Ils prennent un verre dans un bar en bas de la cinqième rue. They have a drink in a bar at the end of Fifth Street. en dehors de = outside of, excluding En dehors de Tammy, Tex ne connaît pas beaucoup de Texans. Outside of Tammy, Tex doesn't know many Texans. en dépit de = in spite of In spite of the alcohol, Tex behaves like a gentleman. En dépit de l'alcool, Tex se conduit en gentleman. en face de = in front of, across from Tex est assis en face de Tammy. Tex is (seated) across from Tammy. en haut de = at the top of; to the top of Tout d'un coup Bette apparaît en haut de l'escalier. All of a sudden, Bette appears at the top of the staircase. entre = between Entre means 'between' and it is used when referring to two people or things (or two groups of people or things). Contrast with parmi ('among'). Puis elle vient s'asseoir entre Tammy et Tex. Then she comes and sits down between Tammy and Tex. envers = toward (figurative sense) Envers means 'toward' in a figurative sense, indicating an attitude or gesture toward someone. Contrast with vers, which means toward in a spatial or temporal sense. Tammy ressent une certaine antipathie envers Bette. Tammy feels a certain animosity toward Bette. 103

104 grace à = thanks to monde. Tex a découvert son grand-père grace à l'album de photos de Rita. language in the world. Tex discovered his grandfather thanks to Rita's photo album. hors de = outside of, out of (idiomatic) Paw-Paw habite hors de la ville d'opelousas. Il est hors de question que Tex vive à Opelousas. Paw-Paw lives outside of the city of Opelousas. It is out of the question that Tex live in Opelousas. jusqu'à = until Distinguish between the preposition jusqu'à and the conjunction jusqu'à ce que. Tex et Tammy vont jusqu'à Opelousas. Tex and Tammy are going as far as Opelousas. loin de = far from Tex habite loin de son grand-père Paw-Paw Louis. Tex lives far from his grandfather Paw-Paw Louis. mal gré = in spite of Mal gré la distance, Tex aime aller voir son grand-père. In spite of the distance, Tex likes to go see his grandfather. par = by, through, per Par has several idiomatic meanings. It means 'by' when it is used with the passive voice. See also the use of par + infinitive. Tex va à Opelousas une fois par mois. Tex est invité à Opelousas par Paw-Paw. Pour aller à Opelousas, Tex passe par Houston. Tex goes to Opelousas once a month (one time per month). Tex is invited to Opelousas by Paw-Paw. Tex goes through Houston to get to Opelousas. parmi = among Parmi means 'among' and it is used when referring to three or more people or things (or groups of people or things). Contrast with entre (between). Tex compte beaucoup de Cajuns parmi ses cousins. Tex counts many Cajuns among his cousins. pendant = during Pendant son séjour chez Paw-Paw, Tex mange des écrevisses. During his stay with Paw-Paw, Tex eats crawfish. pour = for, in favor of See also the use of pour + infinitive. Paw-Paw est pour la défense du Cajun. Pour lui, le français est la plus belle langue du monde. Paw-Paw is in favor of the defense of Cajun. For him, French is the most beautiful language in the world. 104

près de = near to Opelousas est près de Baton Rouge. Opelousas is near Baton Rouge. quant à = as for Paw-Paw est content de voir Tex. Quant à Tex, il est heureux de pouvoir enfin parler français.

sans = without Sans often is translated by '-less' or a negative prefix 'in-' or 'un-': un travail sans effort (effortless work); un film sans intérêt (an uninteresting film).

105 près de = near to Opelousas est près de Baton Rouge. Opelousas is near Baton Rouge. quant à = as for Paw-Paw est content de voir Tex. Quant à Tex, il est heureux de pouvoir enfin parler français. Paw-Paw is happy to see Tex. As for Tex, he is happy to finally be able to speak French. sans = without Sans often is translated by '-less' or a negative prefix 'in-' or 'un-': un travail sans effort (effortless work); un film sans intérêt (an uninteresting film). See also the use of sans + infinitive. Sans doute, le français se parle dans sa famille depuis longtemps. Without doubt, French has spoken in his family for a long time. sauf = except Toute sa famille parle français, sauf son oncle Elmer, qui habite en Californie. Everyone in his family speaks, except Uncle Elmer, who lives in California. sel on = according to Sel on Paw-Paw, Tex a un drôle d'accent français. According to Paw-Paw, Tex has a funny French accent. sous = under, in (idiomatic) Sous means 'under,' but it is often translated by 'in' in expressions such as sous la pluie (in the rain); sous le soleil (in the sun). En route pour Opelousas, Tex et Tammy ont vu un alligator sous un pont. On the road to Opelousas, Tex and Tammy saw an alligator under a bridge. 105

106 sur = on, upon, on top of Sur means 'on,' but it is also used in several idiomatic expressions: un sur deux (one out of two); tourner son attention sur quelquechose (to turn one's attention to something); sur le moment (at the time); sur invitation (by invitation). etc. En Louisiane, on sert souvent des écrevisses directement sur la table, sans assiette. In Louisiana, crawfish are often served directly on the table, with no plate. vers = toward(s) Vers means 'toward, around' in both a spatial and a temporal sense. Contrast with envers, which has a figurative sense. Vers midi, Tex et Tammy repartent vers Austin. Around noon, Tex and Tammy head back towards Austin. Bette et Tammy entrent dans un restaurant ensemble. Elles ont toutes les deux pris rendezvous avec Tex sans le savoir! Elles regardent autour de la salle. En même temps, elles aperçoivent Tex assis à une table. Elles se précipitent vers lui. Elles se regardent, hésitent un moment, puis s'asseyent. Tammy s'assied à droite de Tex et Bette s'assied à gauche de lui. Elles se regardent à nouveau d'un air confus. Tex s'amuse mal gré le drame entre Bette et Tammy. Bette and Tammy enter a restaurant together. Unknowingly, they both have a date with Tex. They look around the room. At the same time they see Tex seated at a table. They rush towards him. They look at each other, hesitate a moment, then sit down. Tammy sits on Tex' right and Bette sits down to his left. They look at each other again, confused. Tex is having fun in spite of the drama between Bette and Tammy. 106

contractions of à and de with definite article page: pre2 The prepositions à or de contract with the definite articles le and les to give the following forms: de + le = du à + le = au à + les = aux

107 contractions of à and de with definite article page: pre2 The prepositions à or de contract with the definite articles le and les to give the following forms: de + le = du à + le = au à + les = aux de + les = des La and l' on the other hand do not contract after à and de. Note that these contractions also occur with two- and three- word prepositions ending with à or de (jusqu'à, près de, loin de, à côté de, etc.). Tammy et Bette sont dans un café près du campus, à côté des commerces, pas loin de la tour. Tammy: Je vais prendre un thé à la vanille et un muffin au chocolat. Et toi? Bette: Pour moi, un biscuit aux amandes et un café au lait. Tammy: Bon, demain on va au gymnase, hein? Tammy et Bette are in a café near campus, not far from the stores, not far from the Tower. Tammy: I am going to have a vanilla tea and a chocolate muffin. What about you? Fiona: For me, an almond cookie and a latte. Tammy: And tomorrow we'll go to the gym, eh? 107

108 depuis vs. il y a... que, ça fait... que, and voilà... que page: pred1 depuis To indicate the starting date or duration of an action or situation which is still going on in the present, use the preposition depuis + a time expression. Note that depuis can mean two different things in English. When depuis is followed by a length of time, as in the first example below, it indicates duration and is translated into English by 'for'. When depuis is followed by a date or a point in time, as in the second example, it indicates the starting point and is translated by 'since'. Tex sort avec Tammy depuis un an. Tex sort avec Tammy depuis septembre. Tex has been going out with Tammy for one year. Tex has been going out with Tammy since September. In a question, depuis is generally translated as 'how long' or 'since when'. In most cases, such questions with depuis can be answered with either the expression of duration or the beginning point. duration (for how long?) starting point (since when?) Depuis combien detemps... How long... Depuis quand... Since when Bette est-elle amoureuse de Tex?... has Bette been in love with Tex?... Bette est-elle amoureuse de Tex?... has Bette been in love with Tex? Elle est amoureuse de lui... She has been in love with him... Elle est amoureuse de lui... She has been in love with him depuis un an.... for one year.... depuis le 20 août.... since August depuis deux minutes.... for two minutes.... depuis lundi.... since Monday.... depuis une éternité.... for ages.... depuis son arrivée.... since his arrival. other uses of depuis When used at the beginning of a sentence without any complement and followed by a comma, depuis is usually translated as 'since then'. For example: Bette a vu Tex le jour de son arrivée à UT et depuis, elle n'arrête pas de penser à lui. Bette saw Tex on the day of his arrival at UT and since then, she has not stopped thinking about him. In negative sentences, depending on the meaning, depuis may be used with either the present (action still going on) or the passé composé to indicate how long something has not been going on (non-action). Tex: Je ne suis pas au Texas depuis longtemps. Tex: I haven't been in Texas for long. (Tex is still in Texas) Tex: Je ne suis pas allé en France depuis l'été dernier. Tex: I haven't been to France since last summer. 108

Bette: Tex, depuis quand es-tu au Texas? Tex: Je ne suis pas au Texas depuis longtemps. Je suis au Texas depuis 1998. Bette: Tex, depuis quand connais-tu Tammy? Tex: Je connais Tammy depuis deux ans.

109 Bette: Tex, depuis quand es-tu au Texas? Tex: Je ne suis pas au Texas depuis longtemps. Je suis au Texas depuis Bette: Tex, depuis quand connais-tu Tammy? Tex: Je connais Tammy depuis deux ans. Bette: Depuis quand veux-tu devenir poète? Tex: Oh, depuis toujours! Bette: Depuis quand n'es-tu pas allé en France? Tex: Je ne suis pas allé en France depuis l'été dernier. Et toi, Bette, depuis quand astu ce tatouage?! Bette: Oh, depuis lundi. Ça fait cool, tu ne trouves pas? Depuis, les mecs ne me quittent pas des yeux! Bette: How long have you been in Texas? Tex: I have not been in Texas for long. I have been in Texas since Bette: Tex, how long have you known Tammy? Tex: I have known Tammy for two years. Bette: How long have you wanted to become a poet? Tex: Oh, I have always wanted to! Bette: How long have you not been in France? Tex: I haven't been in France since last summer. And you, Bette, how long have you had this tattoo?! Bette: Oh, since Monday. Cool, isn't it? Since then, guys have not been able to take their eyes off me! il y a... que, ça fait... que, voilà... que Il y a... que, ça fait... que and, more emphatic, voilà... que express duration only. Unlike depuis, they are always used at the beginning of a sentence. For example: Bette: Tex, ça fait longtemps que tu enseignes le français? Tex: Voilà un an que j'enseigne le français. Bette: Tex, il y a combien de temps que tu connais Tammy? Tex: Ça fait deux ans. Bette: Tex, how long have you been teaching French? Tex: I've been teaching French for a year. Bette: Tex, how long have you known Tammy? Tex: It's been two years. Although il y a... que and ça fait... que may occasionally be found in the future (il y aura... que, ça fera... que), the subordinate clause introduced by que is never in the future. It remains in the present. For example: Bette: Tex, il y a combien de temps que tu connais Tammy? Il y aura deux ans demain que je connais Tammy. Bette: Tex, how long have you known Tammy? Tex: It will be two years tomorrow (that I have known Tammy). 109

110 depuis with imperfect page: pred2 The preposition depuis with the imperfect indicates how long something had been going on in relation to a past event. Basic sentence meaning and construction are similar to those of depuis with present. Depui s with imperfect may indicate either duration or a temporal starting point. what had been going on... past event translation Tammy attendait Tex depuis une heure quand il est entré. Tammy had been waiting for Tex for an hour... when he came in. Tammy souhaitait avoir une discussion sérieuse depuis lundi quand enfin le moment s'est présenté. Tammy had been wanting to have a serious discussion since Monday... when at last the opportunity presented itself. Duration may also be indicated with il y avait... que, cela faisait... que and, more emphatic, voilà que. The first sentence above could also be expressed as: Il y avait... une heure que Tammy had been Cel a fai sai Voilà... Tammy attendait Tex. waiting for Tex for an hour. Tammy: Salut, Tex. Ça va? Tex: Non! Hier, j'étais à la bibliothèque depuis deux minutes quand l'alarme à incendie a sonné. Je n'ai pas pu travailler! Ensuite à la caféteria, je faisais la queue depuis une demi- heure, lorsqu'ils ont annoncé qu'il n'y avait plus de sandwiches! Je suis allé faire cours sans avoir mangé! Tammy: Pour moi non plus, rien ne va comme je veux! Depu s lundi je voulais te parler, mais ce matin tu as dit que tu avais trop de travail! Tammy: Hi Tex. How are you? Tex: Not well! Yesterday, I had been in the library for two minutes when the fire alarm went off. I was not able to work! Then at the cafeteria, I had been waiting in line for half an hour when they announced they had run out of sandwiches! I went to teach without eating! Tammy: Nothing is going the way I want either! I had been wanting to talk to you since Monday, but this morning you said you had too much work! 110

111 depuis, pendant, pour: 'for' page: prep1 There are three prepositions in French, depuis, pendant and pour, that are translated as 'for' and are used to indicate the duration of an event. depuis If an event began in the past and is continuing into the present, use 'depuis' with the present tense. For example: Tammy: Tex et moi sommes ensemble depuis un an. Tammy: Tex and I have been together for a year. pendant Pendant literally means 'during', but it is usually best expressed in English as 'for' plus a certain amount of time. It can be used with all tenses. Tex: Tous les jours, je parle avec Tammy pendant une heure. Tex: A Noël, Tammy et moi resterons chez ses parents pendant deux semaines. Tex: Everyday, I talk with Tammy for an hour. Tex: For Christmas, Tammy and I will stay at her parents' for two weeks. Pendant is used with the passé composé to indicate how long a completed activity lasted. Be careful not to use depuis with the passé composé in this context. Tex: J'ai attendu Edouard pendant une heure. Finalement, il est arrivé. Il est toujours en retard. Tex: I waited for Edouard for an hour. Finally he arrived. He is always late. pour The preposition pour is used in a variety of contexts. When translated as 'for' in English, it may designate the duration of a future event with the verbs partir and aller. Note that the verb may be conjugated in either the present or future tense. Tammy: A Noël, Tex et moi, nous allons chez moi pour deux semaines. Tex: C'est vrai, nous partirons pour deux longues semaines. Tammy: For Christmas, Tex and I are going to my house for two weeks. Tex: It's true, we will leave for two long weeks. Tammy: Salut, Tex. Ça va? Tex: Non, ce n'est pas mon jour! Je pars pour le week-end. Je vais rendre visite à Paw-Paw. J'ai attendu le bus pendant une heure ce matin. Puis je l'ai raté à cause de Bette. Tammy: Qu'est-ce qu'elle a fait? Tex: Je ne vais pas te le dire. Tammy: Nous sortons ensemble depuis un an. Tu ne peux plus garder de secrets comme ça! Tammy: Hi Tex. How are you? Tex: Not well! This is not my day! I am leaving for the weekend. I am going to visit Paw-Paw. I waited for the bus for an hour this morning. Then I missed it because of Bette. Tammy: What did she do? Tex: I am not going to tell you. Tammy: We have been going out for a year. You can't keep secrets like that anymore! 111

Prepositions with Places page: pre3 Prepositions are used in expressions which relate where you are, where you are going and where you are coming from.

112 Prepositions with Places page: pre3 Prepositions are used in expressions which relate where you are, where you are going and where you are coming from. The preposition used in such expressions depends on the geographic location discussed. geographic location cites (Paris, Londres, Austin) islands (Cuba, Tahiti) to/in à à Paris à Cuba from de (d') d'austin de Tahiti feminine (usually ending in -e) en de (d') countries (la France) states (la Californie) provinces (la Bourgogne) continents (l'europe) en France en Californie en Bourgogne en Europe de France de Californie de Bourgogne d'europe masculine au du countries (le Canada, le Texas :-) au Canada du Texas provinces/states (le Colorado) au Colorado du Colorado masculine beginning with a vowel en de (d') countries (l'iran) en Iran d'iran provinces/states (l'ontario) en Ontario d'ontario plural countries and regions (les Etats-Unis) aux aux Etats-Unis des des Etats-Unis 112

113 Tex est né au Texas, bien sûr. Mais par accident il a grandi en Europe. Comment expliquer cette histoire incroyable? Eh bien, quand il était tout petit, on l'a mis dans un avion avec les bagages àl'aéroport Bush International à Houston. Son avion est arrivé à Paris (en France) où il a rencontré des nonnes françaises qui venaient de faire un voyageaux Etats-Unis. Elles arrivaient dehouston, elles aussi. Quelle coïncidence! Elles ont eu pitié de ce pauvre tatou égaré et elles l'ont emmené au couvent àlyon. Tex a vécu heureux chez les nonnes pendant plusieurs années. Malheureusement, un jour il a été expulsé de France, et il est retourné dans son pays natal, c'est-à-dire au Texas! Tex was born in Texas, of course, but by accident he grew up in Europe. How de we explain this unbelievable story? Well, when he was very little, he was put with the luggage in a plane at Bush International Airport in Houston. His plane arrived in Paris (in France) where he met some French nuns who had just taken a trip to the United States. They, too, were arriving from Houston. What a coincidence! They took pity on this poor lost armadillo and they took him to their convent in Lyon. Tex lived happily with the nuns for several years. Unfortunately, one day he was deported from France and he returned to his native country, that is, to Texas! 113

114 prepositions with infinitives page: pre4 The infinitive is the verb form generally used after a preposition in French. À (to) and de (from, about) are the most common prepositions in French. In many expressions, the choice of the preposition à or de before an infinitive is purely idiomatic; that is, it is unrelated to meaning. In such cases, one must memorize which preposition is used. à + infinitive When the following verbs are followed by an infinitive, the preposition à is required. Tex a du mal à trouver l'inspiration. Tex finds it difficult to find inspiration. ai der à, to help to s'amuser à, to have fun at apprendre à, to learn to arri ver à, to succeed in, to manage to s'attendre à, to expect to avoir dumal à, to find it difficult to chercher à, to try to, to attempt to commencer à, to start to continuer à/ de, to continue to (either à or de) se décider à, to make up one's mind to encourager à, to encourage to s'habituer à, to get used to hésiter à, to hesitate to inviter à, to invite to se mettre à, to start to se préparer à, to prepare to renoncer à, to give up réussir à, to succeed at servir à, to be used for tenir à, to be anxious to, to be eager to de + i nfi ni ti ve When the following verbs are followed by an infinitive, the preposition de is required. Tex arrête d'écrire, parce qu'il rêve d'embrasser Tammy. Tex stops writing, because he is dreaming of kissing Tammy. (s')arrêter de, to stop choisir de, to choose to conseiller de, to advise to se contenter de, to content oneself with continuer à/ de, to continue to (either à or de) déci der de, to decide to s'efforcer de to try hard to, to endeavor to essayer de, to try to s'excuser de, to apologize for finir de, to finish mériter de, to deserve, to be worth oublier de, to forget to permettre (à quelqu'un) de, to permit someone to persuader de, to persuade to se presser de, to hurry to promettre de, to promise to proposer de, to propose to refuser de, to refuse to rêver de to dream of se soucier de, to care about se souvenir de, to remember to 114

Most idiomatic expressions with avoi r also require de + infinitive: Oh, Tex a l'air de rêver. Oh, Tex seems to be dreaming. Tex a peur de se réveiller. Tex is afraid of waking up.

115 Most idiomatic expressions with avoi r also require de + infinitive: Oh, Tex a l'air de rêver. Oh, Tex seems to be dreaming. Tex a peur de se réveiller. Tex is afraid of waking up. Tex a envie de dormir. Tex feels like sleeping. Tex a besoin de se reposer. Tex needs to rest. Tex a honte d'être américain. Tex is ashamed of being American. Tex a tort d'être susceptible. Tex is wrong in being touchy / should not be touchy. Tex a raison d'être fier. Tex is right to be proud. The infinitive may be used to complete the sense of an adjective or a pronoun. Generally infinitives following a noun or adjective are preceded by the preposition de. (Tex est content de voir Tammy dans ses rêves romantiques. Tex is glad to see Tammy in his romantic dreams.) However, adjectives and nouns are followed by the preposition à + infinitive to indicate a passive sense or a function: "cette eau est bonne à boire" (this is drinking water), "ce livre est amusant à lire" (this book is fun to read), "c'est tri ste à voir" (it's a sorry sight), "c'est difficile à dire" (this is difficult to say). pour, afin de, avant de, sans, par + infinitive The infinitive expresses purpose when it is used after pour or afin de (in order to). In the case of avant de (before) and sans (without), the English translation is often a conjugated verb (before they left), or a present participle (without speaking), rather than the English infinitive. The infinitive follows the preposition par (by) after the verbs commencer (to start) and finir (to finish). pour/afin de Tex s'allonge sur son lit pour lire. Tex lies down on his bed to read. avant de sans par Avant de s'endormir, Tex lit toujours un poème romantique. Il ne peut pas dormir sans rêver de Tammy. Il finit par rêver de Tammy toute la nuit. Before going to sleep, Tex always reads an romantic poem. He can not sleep without dreaming of Tammy. He ends up dreaming of Tammy all night long. après (past i nfi ni ti ve constructi ons) The infinitive of avoi r or être plus the past participle of a verb is used after the preposition après (after) to describe a preceding action in the past. Note the past participle agreement in past constructions with être. Après avoir rêvé de Tammy, Tex retrouve son inspiration. Après être devenue la muse de Tex, Tammy est passée à la postérité! After dreaming of Tammy, Tex finds his inspiration again. After becoming Tex' muse, Tammy is immortalized! 115

Pronouns Introduction to Pronouns page: pro1 A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun. It is commonly used to avoid repeating a previously mentioned noun known as the antecedent.

116 Pronouns Introduction to Pronouns page: pro1 A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun. It is commonly used to avoid repeating a previously mentioned noun known as the antecedent. In the following example, pronouns in bold face are used to replace the underlined antecedents. Tex a écrit un poème romantique, Tex wrote an romantic poem and et puis il l'a envoyé à Tammy. Elle a été then he sent it to Tammy. She choquée quand elle l'a lu. was shocked when she read it. The different kinds of pronouns are named according to their grammatical function. subject pronouns je, tu, il, elle, on, nous, vous, ils, elles I, you, he, she, one, we, you, they (m), they (f) di rect obj ect pronouns me, te, le, la nous, vous, les me, you, him / it, her / it us, you, them (m) / (f) i ndi rect obj ect pronouns me, te, lui nous, vous, leur to me, to you, to him / her to us, to you, to them (m) / (f) the pronouns y and en y en disjunctive pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, soi nous, vous, eux, elles there (replaces preposition + location) some, any, not any (replaces 'de' + noun) me, you, he, she, one we, you, them (m), them (f) refl exi ve pronouns me, te, se nous, vous, se myself, yourself, himself, herself ourselves, yourselves, themselves interrogative pronouns qui que who what demonstrati ve pronouns cel ui, celle ceux this one / that one (m,f) these, those rel ati ve pronouns qui, que lequel, laquelle who, whom, which which indefinite pronouns quelqu'un quel que chose someone something 116

117 Subject Pronouns page: pro2 A pronoun replaces a noun in order to avoid repetition. Subject pronouns are subjects of verbs. In French, a subject pronoun is immediately or almost immediately followed by its verb. The use of subject pronouns is mandatory in French; always use a subject pronoun to construct sentences in the absence of a noun subject. Here are the French subject pronouns: person singular plural 1st person je, I nous, we 2nd person tu, you vous, you/y'all 3rd person il, he/it elle, she/it on, one/we (colloquial) ils, they (masc.) elles, they (fem.) Subject pronouns are labelled by the term 'person', referring to the subject's role in the conversation. 1st person refers to the person(s) speaking (I, we); 2nd person to the person(s) spoken to (you); and 3rd person to the person(s) or thing(s) spoken about (he, she, it, they). je Unlike the English pronoun 'I', je is not capitalized unless it begins a sentence. tu The pronoun tu is singular and, importantly, informal. Use tu to address people your own age and those you know well. on The pronoun on means 'one', or 'they' in a nonspecific sense: 'comme on dit' (as they say). On often replaces 'nous' in spoken French: 'On y va?' (Shall we go?). vous The pronoun vous is conjugated with a plural verb so it obviously refers to more than one person. However, it is also the customary form of address when you are talking to only one person you do not know well, such as an elder, a boss, a shopkeeper, etc. Inappropriate use of the tu form is considered a sign of disrespect. Tammy: Bonjour, Paw-Paw. Vous allez bien? Paw-Paw: Ah, oui! Et vous, mes enfants, Tex, Tammy, vous allez bien? Tammy: Hello Paw-Paw. Are you doing well? Paw-Paw: Ah, yes! And you, kids, Tex, Tammy, are you doing OK? il/elle Il and elle besides meaning 'he' and 'she' can both express the meaning 'it' depending on the gender of the noun being replaced. For example: Bette: La musique est bonne, n'est-ce pas? Tex: Non, elle est terrible! Je déteste la musique country. Bette: Oh, qu'est-ce que tu as fait, Tex? Le juke-box est cassé? Tex: Oui, il est casse! Bette: The music is good, isn't it? Tex: No, it's terrible. I hate country music. Bette: Oh, what did you do, Tex? The juke-box is broken Tex: Yes, it is broken! 117

ils/elles ils and elles are similar to il and elle since they agree with the gender of the noun they replace. ils and elles may refer to people or things.

118 ils/elles ils and elles are similar to il and elle since they agree with the gender of the noun they replace. ils and elles may refer to people or things. Elles is used to mean 'they' if it replaces people who are all women or objects that are all feminine in gender. On the other hand, ils is used to mean 'they' for objects that are masuline in gender or a group of all men or any group where there is at least one male person or masculine object in the group. Bette et Tex sont de bons amis. Normalement ils s'entendent bien, mais pas aujourd'hui! Bette and Tex are good friends. Normally, they get along well, but not today! Fiona: Bonjour Tex, tu vas bien? Fiona: Hi Tex, are you doing well? Tex: Pas du tout, je vais très mal. Je veux écouter de la musique française. Et puis Bette et moi, on s'est disputé. Fiona: Ah bon? Elle est toujours là? Tex: Non. Elle est partie avec Tammy. Elles sont allées au Broken Spoke. Fiona: Tiens, nous y allons, toi et moi? Tex: Tu ne m'as pas entendu? Je n'aime pas la musique country!!! Beurk! Qu'est-ce qu'on aime la musique country au Texas! Tex: Not at all. I'm doing poorly. I want to listen to some French music. And then Bette and I had a fight. Fiona: Oh really? Is she still here? Tex: Non, she left with Tammy. They went to the Broken Spoke. Fiona: Hey, why don't you and I go there? Tex: Didn't you hear me? I don't like country music!!! Argh! People really like country music in Texas! 118

c est vs il/elle est page: pro3 To describe and introduce things or people in French, two common phrases are used: c'est and il/elle est. The plural forms are ce sont and ils/elles sont.

119 c est vs il/elle est page: pro3 To describe and introduce things or people in French, two common phrases are used: c'est and il/elle est. The plural forms are ce sont and ils/elles sont. The choice between c'est and il/elle est is not always easy, but there are basic principles which can guide you in the choice. A rule of thumb is that c'est or ce sont are followed by a determined noun ('le tatou', 'une Américaine', 'mes livres'). Remember that nouns in French are preceded by a determiner. il/elle est and ils/elles sont are followed by an adjective ('content', 'sympathique'). c'est/ ce sont C'est and ce sont are followed by the following: il/elle est/ils/elles sont Use il/elle est or ils/elles sont to introduce the following: Remember that il(s) and elle(s) refer to a specific person or thing. Ce does not refer to a specific person or thing; it is usually translated as that. Il est stupide. (He's stupid.) C'est stupide. (That's stupid) 119

120 disjunctive pronouns page: pro4 forms Disjunctive pronouns (also known as tonic or stressed pronouns) refer to people whose names have already been mentioned or whose identity is obvious from context. They are used in a variety of situations in French, most often in short answers without verbs, for emphasis, or for contrast with subject pronouns. Here are all the disjunctive pronouns: disjunctive pronouns moi (I, me) toi (you) lui (he, him) elle (she, her) soi (one) nous (we, us) vous (you) eux (they, them; masc.) elles (they, them; fem.) uses after prepositions C'est samedi soir: It's Saturday night: in short answers or exclamations when no verb is expressed with ni... ni, ne... que que toi ma chérie. in a compound subject or object in simple agreements or disagreements when no verb is expressed for emphasis Tammy adore Tex. Elle ne peut pas vivre sans lui. Elle vit pour lui. Elle veut se marier avec lui. Corey: Qui sort avec Tammy? Tex: Moi! Tex (à Tammy): Je n'aime Tammy: Tex et moi, nous aimons aller en boîte. Joe-Bob: Moi aussi! Corey: Pas moi! Fiona: Moi non plus! Joe-Bob: Eux, ils s'amusent, mais vous, vous ne sortez jamais. Dimanche matin: Tammy loves Tex. She can't live without him. She lives for him. She wants to marry him. Corey: Who is going out with Tammy? Tex: Me! Tex (to Tammy): I love only you, my dear. Tammy: Tex and I like to go clubbing. Joe-Bob: Me too! Corey: Not me! Fiona: Me neither! Joe-Bob: Those guys, they have fun, but you, you never go out. Sunday morning: after c'est or ce sont with -même, to mean'-self' sur toi -même! in comparisons Corey: C'est moi le plus nul. Tammy: Arrête de t'apitoyer Corey: Il n'y a personne qui soit plus pitoyable que moi! Corey: I'm the biggest loser. Tammy: Stop pitying yourself! Corey: There is nobody who is more pitiful than me. 120

121 Direct object pronouns page: pro5 A direct object is a noun following the verb that answers the questions 'what?' or 'whom?' Remember a pronoun replaces a noun, and in this case the noun is a direct object. For example, Tammy might ask: 'Tex, will you kiss me tonight?', where the direct object pronoun 'me' stands for Tammy. Whether a verb takes a direct object or not depends on whether the specific verb is transitive or intransitive. forms and uses direct obj ect pronouns me, me te, you le, him/it la, her/it nous, we/us vous, you les, them (masc./fem.) In front of a word starting with a vowel, le and la become l'; me becomes m'; te becomes t'. Tammy: Dis, tu m'appelles ce soir, Tex? Tex: Oui, ma belle, je t'appelle ce soir. Corey: Edouard et moi, tu nous appelles ce soir, Tex? Tex: Non, je ne vous appelle pas ce soir. Joe-Bob: Moi, je peux les appeler ce soir! Tammy: Say, will you call me tonight, Tex? Tex: Yes, beautiful, I will call you tonight. Corey: Edouard and me, will you call us tonight, Tex? Tex: No, I will not call you guys tonight. Joe-Bob: I can call them tonight! Direct object pronouns in French agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace. Tex cherche le numéro de téléphone de Tammy. Enfin il le trouve et il l'appelle. Joe-Bob cherche les numéros d'edouard et de Corey. Enfin il les trouve et il les appelle. Tex looks for Tammy's phone number. Finally he finds it and he calls her. Joe-Bob looks for Edouard and Corey's phone numbers. Finally he finds them and he calls them. Note that le/l' can replace an adjective or a verb. Tex et Tammy sont amoureux? Oui, ils le sont. Tex est quelquefois jaloux? Oui, il l'est. Joe-Bob: Tu veux que j'appelle Tammy? Tex: Non, moi, je vais le faire. Tex and Tammy are in love? Yes, they are. Tex is sometimes jealous? Yes, he is. Joe-Bob: Do you want me to call Tammy? Tex: No, I'll do it. 121

placement Direct object pronouns precede the verb of which they are the object. In a composed tense (like the passé composé), the pronoun precedes the auxiliary.

122 placement Direct object pronouns precede the verb of which they are the object. In a composed tense (like the passé composé), the pronoun precedes the auxiliary. In infinitive constructions, the pronoun goes immediately before the infinitive. When the conjugated verb is negative, the ne precedes the object pronoun. Tammy: Tex m'aime. Tex ne t'aime pas. Tammy: Tex va m'épouser. Bette: Sois raisonnable, Tammy. Tex ne veut pas t'épouser. Tammy: Mais si. Il l'a promis quand je l'ai rencontré à Lyon. Bette: Mais il ne m'avait pas encore rencontrée! Tammy: Tex loves me. Bette: Bette: Tex does not love you. Tammy: Tex is going to marry me. Bette: Be reasonable, Tammy. Tex doesn't want to marry you. Tammy: Yes he does. He promised when I met him in Lyon. Bette: But he hadn't yet met me! In the negative imperative, the pronoun follows the normal placement before the verb. However, in the affirmative imperative, the object pronoun goes after the verb and is attached to it by a hyphen. In addition, me and te become moi and toi. Bette: Tex, embrasse-moi! Joe-Bob: Attends, ne l'embrasse pas devant moi. Je m'en vais. Bette: Eh bien, il est parti. SMACK! Bette: Tex, kiss me! Joe-Bob: Wait, don't kiss her in front of me. I'm leaving. Bette: Eh bien, he's left. SMACK! agreement of the past parti ci ple The past participle agrees in gender and in number with a preceding direct object. In other words, if the direct object pronoun is feminine, add an e to the end of the past participle; if the pronoun is masculine plural, add an s (unless the past participle already ends in s); if it is feminine plural, add es. Un peu plus tard... A little later... Bette: Tammy? Tu sais, Tex m'a embrassée. Tammy: Ce n'est pas vrai! Bette: Demande-lui. Il arrive. l'as embrassée, Bette? Tex: Qui? Bette? Mais non. Je ne l'ai pas embrassée. C'est elle qui m'a embrassé! PAF! Aie! Bette: Tammy? Tex kissed me. Tammy: That's not true. Bette: Ask him. Here he comes. Tammy: Tex, tu Tammy: Tex, did you kiss her, Bette? Tex: Who? Bette? Why no. I didn't kiss her. She kissed me! POW! Ow! 122

pronoun y page: pro6 uses y expressing place Y replaces a preposition indicating location plus its object: 'à UT' (at UT), 'devant la Tour' (in front of the Tower). It is usually translated as there.

123 pronoun y page: pro6 uses y expressing place Y replaces a preposition indicating location plus its object: 'à UT' (at UT), 'devant la Tour' (in front of the Tower). It is usually translated as there. Prepositions which indicate location include à, en, dans, devant, derrière, sous, sur. The noun objects of these prepositions are places and things which indicate a place. The exception is the preposition chez which is used with a person, as in 'chez Bette' (Bette's place). Note that à + person is replaced by an indirect object pronoun except with certain verbs. Bette: Tammy, tu vas à Waco? Bette: Tammy, are you going to Waco? Tammy: Oui, j'y vais ce week-end pour un bal à Baylor. Tammy: Yes, I'm going there this weekend for a dance at Baylor. Bette: Mais on ne peut pas y danser. Tammy: Mais si, les étudiants à Baylor ont maintenant le droit de danser. Bette: Super, on y va! Bette: But you can't dance there. Tammy: But yes, Baylor students now have the right to dance. Bette: Super, let's go there! y wi th certai n verbs With certain verbs y replaces the preposition à when its object is an idea or thing, but not a person. Some of these verbs are penser à, réfléchir à (to think about), s'intéresser à (to be interested in), répondre à (to answer to), participer à (to participate in). In these expressions, the preposition à is idiomatic. It does not indicate location in or movement toward. Tex s'intéresse à la philo. Il s'y intéresse énormément. Tex pense toujours à l'existentialisme. Il y pense jour et nuit. Tex is interested in philosophy. He's terribly interested in it. Tex always thinks about existentialism. He thinks about it night and day. When these verbs are followed by a person, the disjunctive pronoun will be used, for example, 'Bette pense souvent à Tex. Elle pense souvent à lui.' (Bette often thinks of Tex. She often thinks of him.) placement Placement of y is the same as that of direct and indirect pronoun objects: y precedes the verb it refers to, except in the affirmative imperative. In compound tenses, like the passé composé, it precedes the auxiliary. Note that there is no agreement between y and the past participle, since y does not replace a direct object. Edouard: Où allez-vous? Bette: A Waco. Tu veux y aller avec nous? with us? Edouard: Je n'y suis jamais allé. On m'a dit que Waco était une expérience anthropologique, le musée Dr. Pepper, le musée Texas Rangers, Baylor... Bette: Nous y allons tout de suite. Edouard: Bon, attendez-moi, j'y vais aussi. Allons-y! Edouard: Where are you going? Bette: To Waco. Do you want to go there Edouard: I've never been there. I've been told that Waco was an anthropological experience: the Dr. Pepper museum, the Texas Rangers museum, Baylor... Bette: We're going there right away. Edouard: Good, wait for me I'm going there, too. Let's go (there)! 123

Pronoun en page: pro77 uses En is a pronoun that typically replaces de + a noun; this includes nouns introduced by partitive or indefinite determiners (de, du, de l ', de la, des).

124 Pronoun en page: pro77 uses En is a pronoun that typically replaces de + a noun; this includes nouns introduced by partitive or indefinite determiners (de, du, de l ', de la, des). En may be translated as 'some', 'any', or 'not any'. Tammy, Edouard et Tex sont à table. Edouard, tu veux de la soupe? Edouard: Oui, merci. Elle est délicieuse. Tex: Il y a du vin? Tammy, Edouard and Tex are eating. Tammy: Tammy: Edouard, do you want some soup? Edouard: Yes, thank you. It is delicious. Tex: Is there any wine? Tammy: Oui il y en a. Tu en veux? Tammy: Yes, there is some. Would youlike some? In a similar fashion, en replaces a noun introduced by a number or an expression of quantity. Notice that the equivalent of en is not always expressed in English, although en must still be used in the French sentence: Tammy: Edouard, tu as assez de pain? Tammy: Edouard, do you have enough bread? Edouard: Oui, merci, j'en ai assez. Edouard: Yes, thank you, I have enough (of it ). Tammy: Tex, tu veux un peu de pain? Tex: Non, merci, je n'en veux pas. J'en ai encore une tranche. Tammy: Tex, do you want a little bread? Tex: No, thank you, I do not want any. I still have a slice (of it ). En also replaces expressions introduced by the preposition de with the following verbs: s'occuper de, to deal with parler de, to speak of remercier de, to thank for revenir de, to return from venir de, to come from Tammy: Alors Edouard, comment s'est passée ton interview au restaurant? Edouard: J'en reviens tout juste! C'était dégoûtant. Tammy: So Edouard, how did your interview at the restaurant go? Edouard: I've just returned from it! It was disgusting. Tammy: Tu veux en parler? Edouard: Tu sais bien que j'ai envie de gagner plus d'argent, j'en ai vraiment besoin, mais servir du barbecue! Jamais! Edouard ne travaillera jamais dans un restaurant qui s'appelle le Bon Barbecue! Tammy: Do you want to talk about it? Edouard: You know that I want to earn more money. I really need some (money), but serve barbecue! Never! Edouard will never work in a restaurant named Good Barbecue! 124

Note that a disjunctive pronoun is used with these verbs to replace expressions when the object of the prepostion de is a person rather than a thing.

125 Note that a disjunctive pronoun is used with these verbs to replace expressions when the object of the prepostion de is a person rather than a thing. placement Placement of en is the same as direct and indirect pronoun objects. En precedes the verb it refers to, except in the affirmative imperative. In compound tenses (such as the passé composé), it precedes the auxiliary verb. Note that there is no agreement between en and the past participle, since en does not replace a direct object. When en is used with il y a ('there is, there are'), it comes between y and a: Du pain sur la table? Il y en a (Some bread on the table? There is some there.) Tex: De nouveaux poèmes? Ne m'en parle pas! Editeur: Mais si, parlons-en. Tex: Je n'en ai pas écrit depuis longtemps et je ne vais plus en écrire. Ma muse m'a quitté et je n'ai plus d'idées. Editeur: Mais si tu en as. Elles sont bizarres, tes idées, mais tu en as beaucoup quand même. Tex: Some new poems? Don't talk to me about them. Editor: But yes, let's talk about them. Tex: I haven't written any for a long time and I'm not going to write any more. My muse has left me and I don't have any more ideas. Editor: But yes, you have some (ideas). Your ideas are strange, but you have a lot of them nevertheless. 125

) An indirect object pronoun indicates à + a person. In the sentence 'Tex offre des fleurs à Tammy', 'Tammy' is the indirect object.

126 Indirect object pronouns forms and uses An indirect object is a person which receives the action of a verb indirectly. In French the indirect object is always preceded by the preposition à and in English by the preposition 'to' : Tex offre des fleurs à Tammy. (Tex gives flowers to Tammy.) An indirect object pronoun indicates à + a person. In the sentence 'Tex offre des fleurs à Tammy', 'Tammy' is the indirect object. The indirect object pronoun that replaces 'à Tammy' is lui : Tex lui offre des fleurs. (Tex gives flowers to her.) Following are the French indirect object pronouns: page: pro8 me (to me) te (to you) lui (to him/to her) nous (to us) vous (to you) leur (to them) In front of a word starting with a vowel, me and te become m' and t'. Tammy: Tex, tu m'offres des fleurs? Et à Bette, tu lui offres des fleurs aussi, n'est-ce pas? Tex: Oui, mais je t'offre des fleurs plus souvent. Joe-Bob: Tu leur as offert des fleurs, à toutes les deux! Bravo, quel tombeur! Tammy: Paf! Tammy: Tex, you're giving me flowers? But Bette, you give her flowers, too, don't you? Tex: Yes, I give you flowers more often. Joe-Bob: You gave them both flowers! Bravo, what a womanizer! Tammy: Pow! placement An indirect object pronoun is placed just before the verb of which it is the object. In a composed tense (like the passé composé), the pronoun precedes the auxiliary. In infinitive constructions, the pronoun goes immediately before the infinitive. When the conjugated verb is negative, the ne precedes the object pronoun. Note that, in compound tenses (such as the passé composé), there is no agreement between the past participle and the indirect object. In the affirmative imperative, the indirect object pronoun is placed after the verb it is the object of and attached to it by a hyphen. In addition, me and te become moi and toi. Tex: Regarde, quelqu'un m'a envoyé un cadeau. Tammy: Qui t'offre un cadeau? Tex ouvre le cadeau. Tammy: Oh, regarde. Il y a une petite carte... Bon anniversaire, mon petit tatou. Je compte partager cette bouteille... et la vie avec toi. Avec toi? Mais, il n'y a pas de signature. Eh bien, monsieur, explique-moi! Tex: Look, someone sent me a gift. Tex: Ahh, une bouteille de champagne! Tammy: Who is giving you a gift? Tex opens Tex: Ahh, the gift. a bottle of champagne! Tammy: Oh, look. There is a little card... Happy birthday, my little armadillo. I'm counting on sharing this bottle... and life with you. With you? But, there's no signature. Well, now, sir, explain (this to) me. Tex: Euh... Tex: Uh... Tammy: C'est bien cette petite chatte maline, n'est-ce pas? Je vais aller lui parler. Tex: Ne lui parle pas! C'est une bagatelle, c'est un petit rien... Tammy: Un petit rien? Paf! Tammy: It's that cunning little cat, isn't it? I'm going to go talk to her about it. Tex: Don't talk to her! It's a small thing, it's nothing... Tammy: Nothing? Pow! 126

127 Order of object pronouns present tense page: Pro9 overview A single pronoun object is placed before the verb with which it is associated, except in the affirmative imperative when the pronoun object follows the verb. The following table outlines the order and placement of pronouns when there is more than one object pronoun in a sentence. Joe-Bob prépare sa leçon: Mon dieu, comme c'est difficile, l'ordre des pronoms objets! Le prof me dit qu'il faut les apprendre par coeur. Voici ma chanson... Joe- Bob is preparing for class: My god, the order of object pronouns sure is difficult! The teacher says I have to memorize them. Here is my song... However, in the affirmative imperative, the pronoun objects follow the verb. y and en Y always precedes en, and both precede the verb except in the affirmative imperative. When used with other pronouns, y and en always follow any other pronoun object, even in the affirmative imperative. Bette: Tu vas au gymnase? Tammy: Oui, j'y vais. Et toi, Fiona? about you, Fiona? Fiona: Non, j'en viens. Vas-y avec Bette. Tammy: il y a des footballeurs là-bas? Fiona: Oui, il y en a. Je te retrouve dans une heure chez toi? Tammy: D'accord. Dis Fiona, je n'ai pas de rouge à lèvres. Tu m'en donnes? Bette: Et n'oublie pas le parfum. C'est essentiel aussi, hein? Allez, donne-nous-en. Bette: Are you going to the gym? Tammy: Yes, I'm going there. And how Fiona: No, I've just been there. Go with Bette. Tammy: Are there any football players there? Fiona: Yes, there are some. Should I meet you at your house in an hour? Tammy: OK. Say, Fiona, I don't have any lipstick. Can you give me some? Bette: And don't forget the perfume. It's also essential, right? Go on, give us some. 127

128 Direct and indrect object pronouns together Sometimes there will be both a direct and an indirect object pronoun in the same sentence. The direct object pronoun is usually closest to the verb of which it is the object. However, the order of direct / indirect object pronouns is reversed in the third person singular and third person plural (le lui, le leur, etc.). In this case, the indirect object is closest to the verb. son parfum? Fiona me le donne? Fiona te le donne? Fiona gives it to me? Fiona gives it to you Fiona nous le donne? Fiona vous le donne? Fiona gives it to us? Fiona gives it to you Fiona le lui donne? Fiona gives it to him/her? Fiona le leur donne? Fiona gives it to them? Remember that in the affirmative imperative, me and te become moi and toi. Tammy: Fiona! Fiona! Ton parfum, tu me le donnes!? Tu vas me le donner? Donne-le- moi! Fiona: Pardon, je ne comprends pas. Vous voulez du parfum pour aller au gymnase? Tammy: Fiona! Fiona! Your perfume? Are you giving it to me? Are you going to give it to me!? Give it to me! Fiona: Sorry, I do not understand. You want perfume to go to the gym? negation In simple tenses, like the present, future, imperfect, and passé simple, the object pronouns are placed between the ne and the verb. In compound tenses, like the passé composé, the plus-que-parfait etc., the object pronouns are placed between the ne and the auxiliary verb. Plus tard au gymnase. Tammy: Personne ne fait attention à nous! Tu vois, sans parfum, aucun mec! Pourquoi est-ce que Fiona ne nous en a pas donné? Bette: Et bien, c'est parce qu'elle ne comprend pas l'art de la séduction. Later in the gym. Tammy: No one is paying any attention to us. You see, no perfume, not a single guy! Why didn't Fiona give us any? Bette: Well, that's because she doesn't understand the art of seduction. 128

Indefinite pronouns page: pro10 A pronoun replaces a noun which has been mentioned or is obvious from context. An indefinite pronoun refers to people or things without identifying them precisely.

129 Indefinite pronouns page: pro10 A pronoun replaces a noun which has been mentioned or is obvious from context. An indefinite pronoun refers to people or things without identifying them precisely. quelqu'un, quelque chose Quelqu'un (somebody) is used in affirmative or interrogative sentences to refer to a person, whether male or female. Quelque chose (something) is the equivalent pronoun used to refer to a thing. If quelqu'un or quelque chose is followed by an adjective, the adjective needs to be preceded by de. Tammy: Quelque chose d'extraordinaire est arrivé aujourd'hui. J'ai rencontré quelqu'un de légendaire. Tammy: Something exceptional happened today. I met somebody legendary. The negative form of quelqu'un is personne (no one, nobody) and the negative form of quelque chose is ri en (nothing). Remember that ne precedes the verb when personne and ri en are used in negative sentences. Tex: Qui as-tu rencontré? Tammy: Personne que tu connais. Tex: C'est tout? Tu ne me dis ri en d'autre? Tammy: Ça ne vaut pas la peine. Personne ne veut me croire. Tex: Who did you meet? Tammy: No one you know. Tex: That's all? You aren't telling me anything else? Tammy: It's not worth the trouble. Nobody wants to believe me. Quelques-uns (a few, masculine) and quelques-unes (a few, feminine) are pronouns used in the plural to speak about people or things. Note that the s at the end of quelques is pronounced before the following uns or unes. Tex: Quoi? Tu as rencontré Ricky Williams? Quelquesuns de mes amis me disent que tu es amoureuse de lui... Tammy: Un peu... Parmi mes copines, quelques-unes sont complètement folles de lui. Tex: What? You met Ricky Williams? Some of my friends tell me you are in love with him... Tammy: A little... Among my girlfriends, some are completely crazy about him. chacun vs. aucun Chacun (each one) is singular and masculine, chacune is singular and feminine. Chaque, on the other hand, is an indefinite determiner used to modify a noun. Tex: Tu es amoureuse de Ricky Williams?! Alors c'est chacun sa vie maintenant?! Tammy: Mais non, calme-toi! Tex: You're in love with Ricky Williams?! So it's everyone for himself now?! Tammy: Of course not, calm down! The negative form of chacun is aucun. Aucun (none, not a one, not a single) is singular and masculine, aucune is singular and feminine. They are used with ne. Tammy: J'ai rencontré beaucoup de footballeurs, mais aucun ne me fait cet effet. Tammy: I have met many football players, but none has this effect on me. 129

130 more indefinite pronouns Plusieurs (several), certains (some; masculine) / certa nes (some; feminine), tous (all, everybody; masculine) / toutes (all, everybody; feminine) are plural indefinite pronouns. They are used in place of plural nouns. Note that the s is pronounced in tous when it is a pronoun. Les copines de Tammy? Pl usi eurs sont folles de Ricky Williams. Les copines de Fiona? Certai nes sont folles de Joe- Bob. Les copains de Tex? Certai ns sont amoureux de Tammy. Les copains de Tex? Tous sont dingues de Bette. Les copines de Tammy? Toutes sont folles de Tex! Tammy's girlfriends? Several are crazy about Ricky Williams. Fiona's girlfriends? Some are crazy about Joe-Bob. Tex's friends? Some are in love with Tammy. Tex's friends? All are crazy about Bette. Tammy's girlfriends? All are crazy about Tex! tout Tout (everything), on the other hand, is always singular. For example: Tammy: Tex, tout va bien? Tammy: Tex, everything's ok? autre Autre is always preceded by a determiner: un autre (another, masculine), l 'autre (the other, masculine or feminine); une autre (another, feminine); d'autres (others, masculine or feminine), l es autres (the others, masculine or feminine). Tex: Non! Il y a un autre dans ta vie!? Tex: No! There is another in your life!? Note the following phrases with autre: autre chose (something else), l'un et l'autre (the one and the other, both, masc), l'une et l'autre (the one and the other, both, fem), les uns et les autres (one and every, masc), les unes et les autres (one and every, fem), ni l'un ni l'autre (neither one nor the other), l'un à l'autre (to one another), l'un pour l'autre (for one another). n'importe qui N'importe qui means 'anybody', 'anyone at all'; n'importe quoi means 'anything', 'whatever', 'nonsense'. You may also find qui que ce soit (anybody) and quoi que ce soit (anything). Tex: Tammy, je ne suis pas n'importe qui! Tu ne peux pas me traiter comme ça! Tammy: Tu racontes n'importe quoi, Tex! Tex: Tammy, I am not just anybody! You cannot treat me this way! Tammy: You are talking nonsense Tex! quiconque Quiconque means 'whoever'. Tammy: Quiconque nous écoute en ce moment doit te trouver ridicule! Tammy: Whoever is listening to us right now must think you are ridiculous! tel(s), telle(s) Tel(s) (masc), telle(s) (fem) may be translated as 'such', 'such as', 'like' or 'as' according to the context. For example, 'Tel père, tel fils' would be the translation of 'Like father, like son'. Tammy: Je n'ai jamais vu une jalousie tel leque la tienne! Tammy: I have never seen such jealousy as yours! 130

131 demonstrative pronouns page: pro11 celui, celle, ceux, celles Celui, celle, ceux, celles ('this one' or 'that one' in the singular; 'these,' 'those' or 'the ones' in the plural) are demonstrative pronouns. They replace a specific noun, which has been mentioned or is obvious from context, in order to avoid repeating it. They agree in gender and number with the nouns they replace. number masculine feminine singular celui celle plural ceux celles Celui de/d', celle de/d' etc. show possession. They are generally translated by 'that of', 'those of' or by the possessive form. Tammy: Tu aimes l'accent d'edouard? Bette: Je préfère celui de Tex. Tammy: Tu aimes la voix d'edouard? Bette: Oh, je préfère celle de Tex. Tammy: Tu aimes les yeux d'edouard? Bette: Oui, mais je préfère ceux de Tex. Tammy: Tu aimes les oreilles d'edouard? Bette: Oui, mais je préfère celles de Tex. Tammy: Do you like Edouard's accent? Bette: I prefer Tex's. Tammy: Do you like Edouard's voice? Bette: Oh, I prefer that of Tex. Tammy: Do you like Edouard's eyes? Bette: Yes, but I prefer Tex's. Tammy: Do you like Edouard's ears? Bette: Yes, but I prefer those of Tex. -ci and -là are added to the demonstrative pronouns to indicate nearness or farness like the distinction between 'this one' and 'that one' in English. Bette: Tammy, regarde mes dernières photos de Tex! Tu préfères celle-ci ou celle-là? Bette: Tammy, look at my latest pictures of Tex! Do you prefer this one or that one? Celui qui..., celle qui... mean 'the one that', 'the one who' and ceux qui..., celles qui... mean 'those that / who'. They introduce a relative clause in which they are used as subjects. In the example below, ceux qui is the subject of the verb 'portent'. Bette: Moi, j'aime les tatous. Tammy: Moi aussi, surtout ceux qui portent le béret. Bette: Me, I like armadillos. Tammy: Me too, especially those who wear berets. 131

132 Celui que... and celle que... mean 'the one that / whom / which', ceux que... and celles que... mean 'the ones that / whom / which'. They introduce a relative clause in which they are used as objects. In the example below, celui que is the object of 'j'aime'. Tammy: Et toi Bette, qui est-ce que tu aimes? Bette: Celui que j'aime ne m'aime pas! Tammy: What about you Bette, who do you love? Bette: The one I love does not love me! Celui dont... and celle dont... mean 'the one whose', 'the one of which', ceux dont... and celles dont... mean 'those whose', 'the ones of which'. They introduce a relative clause in which the verb takes an object introduced by de (parler de, 'to talk about') Tammy: De qui tu parles? Bette: Tu ne connais pas celui dont je parle. about! Tammy: Who are you talking about? Bette: You don't know the one I am talking ceci, cela Ceci (this) and cel a (that) are invariable demonstrative pronouns. They refer to things that cannot have a specific gender assigned to them, like ideas or statements. Ça is used in familiar or conversational style in place of cel a for emphasis. Tammy: Tu es amoureuse de Tex, cela me semble évident!! Bette: Qu'est-ce que tu racontes?! Tu crois vraiment que je ne respecte pas l'amour entre toi et Tex?! Ça me fait de la peine, ça! Tammy: You are in love with Tex. That seems obvious to me!! Bette: What are you saying!? Do you really believe that I don't respect the love between you and Tex? Now that really upsets me! 132

133 possessive pronouns forms and uses A possessive pronoun replaces a noun preceded by a possessive determiner like mon, ton, son, etc. page: pro12 Tammy: C'est ton béret Tex? Tex: Oui, c'est le mi en. Tammy: Is this your beret Tex? Tex: Yes, it is mine. In French, possessive pronouns indicate both the possessor and the number and the gender of the object possessed: le mi en indicates that the possessor is 'I' and that the possession is masculine singular. In the following table, the choice between the singular or plural form and between the masculine or feminine form depends on the number and gender of the item possessed. (Note the difference in spelling and in pronunciation between the possessive determiners notre and votre and the possessive pronouns nôtre and vôtre.) singular plural masculine feminine masculine feminine Mine# yours his/hers/its ours yours theirs le mien la mienne les miens les miennes le tien la tienne les tiens les tiennes le sien la sienne les siens les siennes le nôtre la nôtre les nôtres les nôtres le vôtre la vôtre les vôtres les vôtres le leur la leur les leurs les leurs Depending on the context, le sien, la sienne, l es siens, les siennes may mean 'his', 'hers', or 'its'. Note that for the others, all four forms of each possessive pronoun have one English translation. Tex: Mon frère est musicien. Tammy: Le mien est professeur. Tex: Ma soeur est secrétaire. Tammy: La mienne est PDG. Tex: Mes parents sont américains. Tammy: Les miens aussi. Tex: My brother is a musician. Tammy: Mine is a professor. Tex: My sister is a secretary. Tammy: Mine is a CEO. Tex: My parents are American Tammy: Mine too. Note that à + the definite articles le et les form the contractions au and aux respectively. For example: Tammy: Je pense souvent à mes neveux. Tex: Je pense rarement aux miens. Tammy: Oh! Tex, tu es si égoïste! Tammy: I often think about my nephews. Tex: I seldom think about mine. Tammy: Oh! Tex you are so selfish! 133

Tammy: Oui c'est la sienne. Tu ne connais pas Rita? Fiona: Qui est Rita? Tammy: C'est la soeur de Tex. Fiona: Who does photo belong to? Tex: It's mine. Tammy: Yes it is his. Don't you know Rita?

134 other ways of expressi ng possessi on Possessive pronouns are one way to express possession of things or people. However, you may also use the construction [être + à + disjunctive pronoun], the possessive determiners or [de + noun]: Fiona: A qui appartient cette photo? Tex: Elle est à moi. Tammy: Oui c'est la sienne. Tu ne connais pas Rita? Fiona: Qui est Rita? Tammy: C'est la soeur de Tex. Fiona: Who does photo belong to? Tex: It's mine. Tammy: Yes it is his. Don't you know Rita? Fiona: Who is Rita? Tammy: It is Tex's sister. Fiona: Ta soeur est très belle. Tu lui ressembles. Tex: Non, je ne lui ressemble pas. Fiona: Your sister is very beautiful. You resemble her. Tex: No, I don't look like her. idiomati c uses The masculine plural forms of the possessive pronouns may be used alone to refer to parents, friends, allies etc. Etre des nôtres, être des vôtres are common phrases with such a meaning of the possessive pronoun. Tammy: Quand j'étais à Lyon, je pensais souvent aux miens. Tammy: Fiona, j'invite des amis ce soir. Tu es des nôtres? Tammy: When I was in Lyon, I often thought of my folks. Tammy: Fiona, I am inviting a few friends tonight. Are you joining us? Y mettre du sien is a common phrase that may be used with any of the possessive pronouns to mean that you are doing your share, trying your best, making a real effort to contribute. Tammy: Tex, nous avons des invités ce soir. Il y a beaucoup de choses à préparer. J'espère que tu vas y mettre du tien. Tammy: Tex, we are having guests tonight. There are a lot of things to prepare. I hope you are going to do your share. Faire des + miennes, tiennes, siennes, nôtres, vôtres, or leurs are phrases suggesting misbehavior. Tammy: Bette a encore fait des siennes. Hier elle a dragué Tex toute la soirée devant tout le monde. Tammy: Bette has been up to her tricks again. She flirted with Tex all evening in front of everybody. 134

135 relative pronouns: qui and que forms and uses A relative pronoun introduces a clause that explains or describes a previously mentioned noun, which is called the antecedent. Relative pronouns are used to link two related ideas into a single sentence, thereby avoiding repetition. page: pror1 Tex écrit un roman. Le roman s'appelle Guerre et amour. Tex écrit un roman qui s'appelle Guerre et amour. Tex is writing a novel. The novel is called War and Love. Tex is writing a novel which is called War and Love. In the above example, the relative pronoun qui introduces the subordinate clause, that is, the clause that adds additional information about the novel. In French there are two main relative pronouns, qui and que. The choice between qui and que in French depends solely on the grammatical role, subject or direct object, that the relative pronoun plays in the subordinate clause. qui Qui functions as the subject of the subordinate clause. Tex interviewe Paw-Paw qui a combattu pendant la deuxième guerre mondiale. Paw-Paw: Oui, j'étais avec des Américains qui ont libéré Paris. On a célébré notre victoire dans le quartier latin qui débordait de jolies Parisiennes. Tex interviews Paw-Paw who fought during World War II. Paw-Paw: Yes, I was with Americans who liberated Paris. We celebrated our victory in the Latin Quarter which was overflowing with pretty Parisian girls. que Que functions as the direct object of the subordinate clause. Remember that que becomes qu' before a word beginning with a vowel. Paw-Paw: Une jolie Parisienne que j'ai connue est devenue ta grand-mère, Tex! Tex: Ma grand-mère! Une héroïne de la Résistance française? Tiens, le livre que j'écris c'est l'histoire de deux héros de la Résistance. Ce n'est pas une pure coïncidence! Paw-Paw: A pretty Parisian whom I met became your grandmother, Tex! Tex: My grandmother! A heroine of the French Resistance? Say, the book that I'm writing is the story of two heroes from the Resistance. It is not entirely a coincidence! agreement Although qui and que are invariable, they assume the gender and number of the antecedent. Que functions as a direct object preceding the verb. Therefore, when the verb of the subordinate clause is in the passé composé, or any other compound tense, the past participle agrees in number and gender with que. The past participle also agrees in number and gender with qui if the verb forms its passé composé with 'être'. Tex: Marie-Tammy et Jean-Tex sont les deux héros que j'ai vus dans un rêve. Ce sont deux espions qui se sont rencontrés en mission. Tex: Marie-Tammy and Jean-Tex are the two heroes whom I saw in a dream. They are two spies who met on a mission. 135

136 Relative pronouns: ce qui, ce que Ce qui and ce que are relative pronouns like qui and que; that is, they introduce a subordinate clause. However, ce qui and ce que are used in sentences in which there is no expressed antecedent. They do not refer to a specific noun, but rather to an idea or an entire statement, which may or may not have been previously expressed: they refer to something unstated and unspecified. The choice between ce qui and ce que depends solely on the grammatical role, subject or direct object, that the relative pronoun plays in the subordinate clause. ce qui Ce qui (what, that, which) functions as the subject of the subordinate clause. page: pror2 Tammy: Edouard, tu as lu le roman de Tex sur la deuxième guerre mondiale? Edouard: Ah oui! Ce qui est fascinant, c'est sa description de l'époque. J'adore tout ce qui se rapporte à la Résistance! Et puis, il y a une intrigue amoureuse, ce qui ne m'étonne pas puisque l'héroïne du livre s'appelle Marie-Tammy! Tammy: Edouard, have you read Tex's novel on WWII? Edouard: Ah, yes I have! What's fascinating is his description of the period. I love everything that is related to the Resistance! And there's also a love interest, which does not surprise me since the book's heroine is called Marie-Tammy! Ce qui is often used for emphasis followed by c'est. Note how the sentence 'Ce qui est fascinant, c'est sa description de l'époque.' is more emphatic than saying simply 'Sa description de l'époque est fascinante.' ce que Ce que (what, that, which) functions as the direct object of the subordinate clause. Ce que becomes ce qu' before a word beginning with a vowel. Tammy: Tout ce que Tex crée est tellement original! Moi, j'aime ce qu' il écrit à propos de la France dans les années Ce que je n'aime pas, c'est la fin du livre. Tammy: Everything that Tex creates is so original! Personally, I like what he writes about France in the 1940s. What I don't like is the end of the book. Le héros meurt. Il n'épouse donc pas Marie-Tammy, ce que je trouve très dommage. The hero dies. So he does not marry Marie- Tammy, which I think is such a pity. Note how the sentence 'Ce que je n'aime pas, c'est la fin du livre.' is more emphatic than saying simply 'Je n'aime pas la fin du livre.' Note that ce qui and ce que are also used in indirect discourse (see reported speech). 136

Relative pronouns: dont, où, etc. present tense page: pror3 A relative pronoun introduces a clause that explains or describes a previously mentioned noun.

De is the most common of these prepositions, and dont is the relative pronoun representing both the preposition de + its object.

137 Relative pronouns: dont, où, etc. present tense page: pror3 A relative pronoun introduces a clause that explains or describes a previously mentioned noun. In instances where the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, relative pronouns other than qui and que must be used. De is the most common of these prepositions, and dont is the relative pronoun representing both the preposition de + its object. dont, où, lequel: relative pronouns with antecedent dont Use dont if the subordinate clause needs an object introduced by de/d'. Such clauses may indicate possession or they may contain verbs which are followed by the preposition de. Some of these verbs include 'parler de' (to talk about); 'avoir besoin de' (to need); 'avoir peur de' (to be afraid of); 'tenir de' (to take after). Tex: Le livre dont je suis l'auteur est un roman historique. Tex: The book of which I'm the author is an historical novel. Dont often indicates possession; 'whose' is its English equivalent. Edouard, parlant du livre de Tex: Tex, dont le grand-père a combattu en France, en 40, a dédié ce livre à Paw-Paw. Edouard, speaking about Tex' book: Tex, whose grandfather fought in France in '40, dedicated this book to Paw-Paw. où The relative pronoun où means 'where, in which, on which.' Use où if the subordinate clause needs an object indicating location introduced by dans, à, sur, sous. When used after adverbs of time, où means 'when.' Paris, où l'histoire commence, va être libéré par les Américains. Paw-Paw était à Paris le jour où les Américains sont entrés dans la ville. Paris, where the story starts, is going to be liberated by the Americans. Paw-Paw was in Paris the day [when] the Americans entered the city. preposition + lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles The relative pronouns lequel, laquelle, lesquels, and lesquelles (which) are used when the relative clause is introduced by a preposition other than de/d'. These pronouns make the usual contractions with the prepositions à and de. Note that the preoposition in French must always be placed immediately in front of the relative pronoun. Ce roman, dans lequel Tex utilise les souvenirs de guerre de Paw-Paw, est très réaliste. This novel, in which Tex uses Paw-Paw's war memories, is very realistic. 137

138 Ses personnages, auxquels Tex s'identifie, sont des héros de la Résistance. L'homme à côté duquel Marie-Tammy est assise est un officier nazi. Les hommes parmi lesquels Marie-Tammy se trouve sont tous des nazis. Les deux femmes entre lesquelles l'officier se trouve font partie de la Résistance. His characters, with whom Tex identifies, are heros of the Resistance. The man next to whom Marie-Tammy is seated is a nazi officer. The men among whom Marie-Tammy finds herself are all nazis. The two women between whom the officer is seated are part of the Resistance. Note: The form dont is generally used in spoken French instead of the forms duquel, de laquelle, desquels, and desquelles; however, these latter forms may also be found, especially in written texts. Dont may be substituted only for the simple preposition de and its object, but a form of lequel must be used when de is part of a two- or three-word preposition, such as 'à propos de, près de, loin de, à côté de.' ce dont, ce + preposi ti on + quoi : rel ati ve pronouns wi th no antecedent In all the preceding examples, the relative pronouns have an antecedent; in other words, a specific word in the sentence for which the relative pronoun stands. Just as the forms ce qui and ce que are used when there is no explicit antecedent, so the forms ce dont and ce + preposition + quoi refer to something unstated and unspecified. Use ce dont if the subordinate clause needs an object introduced by de. On comprend très bien ce dont les Parisiens avaient peur pendant l'occupation. One understands very well what the Parisians were afraid of during the Occupation. Use ce + preposition + quoi when the subordinate clause needs an object introduced by a preposition other than de. Remembethat, unlike English, the preposition in French must always be placed immediately in front of the relative pronoun. Tout le monde va comprendre ce à quoi Tex fait allusion quand il décrit Jean-Tex et Marie-Tammy--il s'agit bien de Tex et Tammy, nos tatous favoris! Everybody's going to understand what Tex is alluding to when he describes Jean-Tex and Marie-Tammy--it's indeed a matter of Tex and Tammy, our favorite armadillos! 138

Conjunctions Introduction to conjunctions page: con1 ar A conjunction is a word used to link or 'conjoin' words or phrases into a coherent whole.

139 Conjunctions Introduction to conjunctions page: con1 ar A conjunction is a word used to link or 'conjoin' words or phrases into a coherent whole. There are two classes of conjunctions: coordinate and subordinate. coordinating conjunctions A coordinating conjunction 'coordinates' two equivalent elements in a sentence, that is, words belonging to the same grammatical category (nouns + nouns, verbs + verbs, independent clause + independent clause, etc.). The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions in French are: mai s ou et donc or ni... ni car puis Edouard n'aime ni le barbecue ni les hamburgers. Tex fume des cigarettes et boit du vin rouge. but or and so, thus so, now neither... nor for then Edouard likes neither barbecue nor hamburgers. Tex smokes cigarettes and drinks red wine. subordinating conjunctions A subordinating conjunction links an independent clause to a dependent clause. In other words, a subordinating conjunction joins two unequivalent clauses (independent and dependent). An independent clause is any clause that can stand alone to form a grammatical sentence. A dependent clause, on the other hand, cannot stand alone and thus 'depends' on the main clause in order to form a complete thought. The most commonly used subordinate conjunctions: que pendant que quand lorsque depuis que tandis que puisque parce que Il est évident que Tex fume trop. (dependent).....(independent) that as, while when when since (indicating time) while, whereas since because It is obvious that Tex smokes too much. 138

140 coordinating conjunctions page: con2 Coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases or independent sentences. The most commonly used are mai s (but), ou (or), et (and), donc (so, thus), or (so, now, but), ni... ni (neither... nor), car (for), puis (then). These conjunctions conjoin forms of the same grammatical category (adjective + adjective, noun + noun, clause + clause, etc.). With the exception of or, all of these conjunctions can be used to link adjectives, nouns or verbs within a sentence. Tex, puis Tammy, ont essayé de comprendre les goûts de Trey. Ils trouvent que le rap est une musique intéressante mais fatigante. Ils préfèrent la musique française ou le jazz. Trey est jeune donc curieux. Trey n'est ni intellectuel ni cultivé. Pour Trey, le saut à l'élastique est fascinant car dangereux. Tex, then Tammy, tried to understand Trey's tastes. They think that rap is interesting but / yet tiring music. They prefer French music or jazz. Trey is young, thus curious. Trey is neither intellectual nor cultivated. For Trey, bungee jumping is fascinating because (it's) dangerous. In addition, ou, et, ni, car, mais, donc, and puis are also used to combine two clauses into one: Tex parle de poésie, de philosophie, ou il ne parle pas du tout. Trey fait du skate-board et écoute de la musique. Tex n'aime pas écouter de la musique rap ni faire du skate-board. Tex ne veut certainement pas essayer le saut à l'élastique car c'est très dangereux. Tex aime bien son frère Trey mais ils n'ont rien en commun Tex talks about poetrey, philosophy, or he does not talk at all. Trey does skate-boarding and listens to music. Tex does not like to listen to rap music nor does he like to skate-board Tex certainly does not want to try bungee jumping for it is very dangerous. Tex really likes his brother Trey but they have nothing in common 139

141 Ou, or, puis, donc, mais indicate a link between two separate sentences. Or, mais and puis are usually placed at the very beginning of the second sentence. Donc is usually placed either at the beginning or right after the conjugated verb of the second sentence. En France, Tex ignorait l'existence de son frère. Puis, un jour, il a rencontré Trey. In France, Tex did not know of the existence of his brother. Then, one day, he met Trey. Tex et Trey n'ont rien en commun. Ils ont donc quelques problèmes de communication. Or cela inquiète Tex. Mais que faire? Tex and Trey have nothing in common. So they have a few communication problems. Consequently, this worries Tex. But what can be done? 140

142 141 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource subordinating conjunctions page: con3 Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate, or dependent, clauses. The most commonly used are que (that), pendant que (as, while), quand / lorsque (when), depuis que (since, indicating time), tandis que (while, whereas) puisque (since), parce que (because). Il est évident que Trey est un curieux personnage. It is evident that Trey is a curious character. Trey et Tex sont tous les deux des artistes, mais tandis que Tex est poète, Trey est musicien. Trey and Tex are both artists, but while Tex is a poet, Trey is a musician. Depuis que Tex connaît Trey, il a découvert le monde du rap. Trey se lève quand le soleil se couche. Il travaille pendant que Tex dort. Puisque Tex et Trey sont frères et artistes, ils devraient se comprendre. Mais ce n'est pas le cas. Since Tex has known Trey, he has discovered the world of rap. Trey gets up when the sun goes down. He works while Tex is alseep. Since Tex and Trey are brothers and artists, they should understand each other. But this is not case. Some of these conjunctions may occur with other tenses besides the present, including the future, conditional, and imperfect. There are other conjunctions which require the subjunctive

Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice Intro to Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice page: ta1 Tense Tense is the grammatical term that refers to the time when the action of the verb occurs: past, present, future.

143 Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice Intro to Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice page: ta1 Tense Tense is the grammatical term that refers to the time when the action of the verb occurs: past, present, future. The time frame of an action is usually established by referring to the present moment; for example, the passé composé and the future are respectively past and future in relation to the present. However, some tenses establish their time frame by referring to other actions in the past or in the future. For example, the plus -queparfait tense indicates a past action that occurred prior to the completion of another past action. The futur antérieur tense indicates a future action that will have occured before another future action. Actions that occur before another action are described as being anterior. Tenses are also described by their number of parts. For example, a tense with only one verb form is called a simple tense (ie, le passé simple). In contrast, a tense comprising two forms, the auxiliary verb and the participle, is referred to as a compound tense (ie, le passé composé). Aspect Aspect, unlike tense, is not concerned with placing events on a time line. Rather, aspect is concerned with making distinctions about the kinds of actions that are described by verbs: progressive actions, punctual actions, habitual actions, etc. The most important aspectual distinction in French concerns the difference between the two most common past tenses: the imparfait and the passé composé. While both tenses refer to actions in the past, they are used for very different types of actions. The imparfait indicates an action that is ongoing or habitual. Actions in the imparfait may be simultaneous or overlapping. The passé composé on the other hand, indicates an action that is in a strict sequence in relation to another action. In other words, an event in the passé composé must be completed before another may be used in narration. These aspectual differences are best understood in a narrative context where the imparfait is typically used to set the scene of a story by giving background information. Installé à la terrasse du Cactus Cafe, Tex regardait les filles qui passaient. Il savourait une tasse de café, mais quelque chose manquait... une cigarette! Seated on the terrace of the Cactus Cafe, Tex was watching the girls who walked by. He was enjoying a cup of coffee, but something was missing... a cigarette! The passé composé is used for the foreground, that is, the plot line events. Note that plot line events are sequential, that is, an event must be completed before another event begins. Tex a sorti une cigarette de son paquet. Il l'a allumée et il a tiré une grande bouffée. Mmm... extase! Tex took out a cigarette from his pack. He lit it and took a long drag. Mmm... ecstasy! Mood Mood is a grammatical category distinguishing verb tenses. There are four moods in French: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and imperative. All of these moods, except the imperative, may be conjugated in different tenses. Each of these moods has a different function. The indicative mood is the most common and is used to relate facts and objective statements. Tammy se réveille tôt le matin. (present tense of the indicative mood) Tammy gets up early in the morning. 142

144 The subjunctive mood is used more commonly in French than in English. It is used to express opinions and feelings (subjective thoughts). Il est dommage que les parents de Tex soient morts. (present tense of the subjunctive mood) It is too bad that Tex's parents are dead. The conditional mood is used to express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact statements. Si Corey était beau, il aurai t une copine. (present tense of the conditional mood) If Corey were handsome, he would have a girlfriend. The imperative mood is used to give direct orders or commands. Tex, réveille-toi! Tex, get up! Voice Voice is a grammatical category describing the relationship between a verb and its subject. Voice is either active or passive. Active voice refers to the situation where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb. Les autorités ont expulsé Tex de France. The authorities expelled Tex from France. On the other hand, passive voice refers to the situation where the subject receives the action of the verb. Tex a été expulsé de France (par les autorités) Tex was expelled from France (by the authorities) 143

present tense page: tapr1 The present tense indicates an action that is either actually occurring at the time of speaking, or a general truth, a so- called 'eternal verity.

145 present tense page: tapr1 The present tense indicates an action that is either actually occurring at the time of speaking, or a general truth, a so- called 'eternal verity.' The French present may be translated in three different ways in English depending on the intended meaning. OR Tex is drinking coffee. (right now, progressive action) Tex boit du café. Tex drinks coffee (in general, habitual action) OR Tex does drink coffee. (emphatic or contrastive) While a French present tense utterance may be translated by three different English sentences, the specific meaning is recoverable from context. In fact, French indicates the different nuances of the English progressive, habitual, or emphatic forms by adding elements to clarify the context. Note the following examples: Tex oublie toujours de prendre un bon petit déjeuner. Tammy: Tex, il faut manger au petit déjeuner. C'est le repas le plus important de la journée. Tex: Oh, ma chérie, tu t'inquiètes trop. Regarde, je mange un beignet. Tammy: Un beignet!? Tu rigoles? Mais, ça ne compte pas! Tex: Mais si, ça compte. Du sucre et du beurre me font du bien le matin... et ensuite une cigarette. Tex always forgets to have a good breakfast. (habit) Tammy: Tex, you have to eat breakfast. It's the most important meal of the day. Tex, Oh, my darling, you worry too much. Look, I'm eating a doughnut. (right now, progressive action) Tammy: Un doughnut!? Are you joking? That doesn't count! Tex: But yes, it does count. (emphatic) Sugar and butter do me good in the morning... and then a cigarette. In addition, the present tense is sometimes used in place of the past or future in informal narration: La vie de Tex est toute une histoire... En 1975, alors bébé, Tex se perd à l'aéroport Bush International à Houston. On le met par erreur avec les bagages dans un avion à destination de la France. A Paris, il rencontre des nonnes qui viennent de faire un voyage aux Etats-Unis. Elles ont pitié de ce pauvre tatou égaré et elles l'amènent au couvent à Lyon. Tex passe son enfance en France. Un jour, on découvre que Tex n'a pas de papiers--pas de passeport, pas de visa. Alors, il retourne au Texas. Malheureusement, il ne se sent pas chez lui au Texas. La vie américaine n'est pas facile pour un tatou francisé. Tex's life is quite a story... In 1975, just a baby, Tex gets lost at Bush International Airport in Houston. He is put by accident with the baggage in a plane headed for France. In Paris he meets some nuns who have just taken a trip to the United States. They take pity on this poor, lost armadillo and they take him to their convent in Lyon. Tex spends his childhood in France. One day, it is discovered that Tex has no papers--no passport, no visa. So he returns to Texas. Unfortunately, he doesn't feel at home in Texas. American life is not easy for a Frenchified armadillo! 144

recent past (venir de + infinitive) page: tap1 When veni r is conjugated in the present and followed by de + infinitive, it means 'to have just done something.

146 recent past (venir de + infinitive) page: tap1 When veni r is conjugated in the present and followed by de + infinitive, it means 'to have just done something.' This is called the recent past (le passé immédiat). Tex et Tammy viennent de regarder une vidéo romantique. Et ils viennent de finir toute une bouteille de vin. Il n'en reste plus une goutte! Tammy: Oh chéri, je t'aime de tout mon coeur. Tex: Embrasse-moi, mon petit quadrupède! [SMACK!] Tex et Tammy have just finished watching a romantic video. And they have just finished a whole bottle of wine. There isn't a drop left! Tammy: Oh darling, I love you with all my heart. Tex: Kiss me, my little quadruped! [SMACK!] When venir is conjugated in the imparfait followed by de +infinitive, it means 'had just done something:' Tex et Tammy venaientde s'embrasser quand Bette est arrivée. Bette: Oh, excusez-moi... Je vous interromps? Tammy: En effet, nous passons une soirée tranquille... Tex: Salut Bette, oh, c'est pas grave. On vient de regarder une vidéo. Assieds-toi. Tex and Tammy had just kissed when Bette arrived. Bette: Oh, excuse me... Am I interrupting you? Tammy: Yes, you are. We are spending a quiet evening... Tex: Hi Bette. Oh, it's OK. We just saw a video. Sit down. Tammy: Mais Tex... Tammy: But Tex... Bette ronronne. Bette purrs. 145

147 passé composé with avoir page: tap2 uses The passé composé is the most commonly used tense to refer to actions completed in the past. The passé composé may be translated into English in three different ways depending on the context. Tex ate all the meat! Tex a mangé toute la viande! Tex did eat all the meat! Tex has eaten all the meat! formati on This tense is called the passé composé because it is composed of two elements: the present tense of an auxiliary verb (either avoir or être), followed by a past participle: passé composé = present tense of auxiliary + past participle Note that in most instances the auxiliary verb is avoi r, but some verbs require être as the auxiliary. For regular verbs with an infinitive ending in -er, the past participle is formed by replacing the final -er of the infinitive with -é. The past participle (parlé) is pronounced the same as the infinitive (parler), even though they are spelled differently. parler 'to talk' j'ai parlé, I (have) talked tu as parlé, you (have) talked il, elle / on a parlé, he, she (it) / one (has) talked nous avons parlé, we (have) talked vous avez parlé, you (have) talked ils / elles ont parlé, they (have) talked The past participle of regular verbs with an infinitive ending in -ir is formed by dropping the final -r from the infinitive. For example, the past participle of finir is fini. finir 'to finish' j'ai fini, I (have) finished tu as fini, you (have) finished il, elle / on a fini, he, she (it) / one (has) finished nous avons fini, we (have) finished vous avez fini, you (have) finished ils / elles ont fini, they (have) finished The past participle of regular verbs with an infinitive ending in -re is formed by replacing the final -re of the infinitive with -u. For example, the past participle of perdre is perdu. perdre 'to lose' j'ai perdu, I (have) lost tu as perdu, you (have) lost il,elle / on a perdu, he, she (it) / one (has) lost nous avons perdu, we (have) lost vous avez perdu, you (have) lost ils / elles ont perdu, they (have) lost Note that many verbs, however, have irregular past participles. The past participles of many common irregular verbs which have avoi r as an auxiliary are listed below. 146

148 infinitive translation past participle avoir to have eu être to be été faire to do fait ouvrir to open ouvert prendre to take pri s mettre to put mi s suivre to follow sui vi boire to drink bu croire to believe cru voir to see vu savoir to know su connaître to know connu dire to say dit lire to read lu écrire to write écrit pouvoir to be able to pu vouloir to want voulu devoir to have to dû tenir to hold tenu recevoir to receive reçu negation Negation of the passé composé is formed by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb, which, in this case, is the auxiliary avoi r. Oh, regardez! Tex a mangé toute la viande! Tammy, au contraire, n'a pas mangé de viande! Elle est végétarienne, comme la plupart des tatous. Oh, look! Tex ate all the meat! Tammy, on the other hand, did not eat any meat! She is a vegetarian, like most armadillos. Joe-Bob arrive chez Tammy. Il meurt de faim. Mais il est trop tard. Joe-Bob: Tammy, j'ai perdu ma collection de noix. Est-ce que je peux dîner avec vous? Tammy: Je suis désolée, Joe-Bob. Tex a fini toute la viande. A mon avis, il a trop mangé. Joe-Bob: Ce n'est pas grave Tammy. Je peux trouver quelque chose dans la cuisine... Mon dieu, Tammy! Est-ce que tu as vu? Tex a dégobillé partout. C'est dégueulasse! Tammy: Ça ne m'étonne pas. Ce petit tatou carnivore, il n'est pas aussi évolué que moi! Joe-Bob arrives at Tammy's house. He is dying of hunger. But it is too late. Joe-Bob: Tammy, I lost my nut collection. Can I have dinner with y'all? Tammy: I am sorry Joe-Bob. Tex finished all the meat. In my opinion, he ate too much. Joe-Bob: It's okay Tammy. I can find something in the kitchen... My god, Tammy! Have you seen? Tex threw up everywhere. It's disgusting! Tammy: That doesn't surprise me. That little carnivorous armadillo. He is not as enlightened as I am! 147

The passé composé may be translated into English in three different ways depending on the context. Tex went to the Alamo. Tex est al lé à l'alamo. Tex did go to the Alamo. Tex has gone to the Alamo.

149 passé composé with etre page: tap3 uses There are several past tenses in French, and each is used in very specific situations. The passé composé is the most common past tense; it is used to relate actions or events completed in the past. The passé composé may be translated into English in three different ways depending on the context. Tex went to the Alamo. Tex est al lé à l'alamo. Tex did go to the Alamo. Tex has gone to the Alamo. formati on The passé composé consists of two parts, the present tense of an auxiliary, or helping verb (either avoi r or être ), and a past participle. In most instances the auxiliary verb used is avoir. passé composé = present tense of auxiliary + past participle However, several intransitive verbs, like al l er (to go), require the auxiliary être instead. Note that the past participle agrees with the subject in number and in gender. aller 'to go' je suis allé(e), I went (have gone) tu es allé(e), you went (have gone) il / on est allé, he / one went (has gone) elle est allée, she went (has gone) nous sommes allé(e)s, we went (have gone) vous êtes allé(e)(s), you went (have gone) ils sont allés, they went, (have gone) elles sont allées, they went, (have gone) The negation is formed by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb, which in this case, is the auxiliary être: Je ne suis pas allé(e), Tu n'es pas allé(e), etc. the Alamo of être Many intransitive verbs, that is, verbs not followed by a direct object, take être in the passé composé. Many of these verbs also indicate motion. They are verbs of coming and going. Even naître (to be born) and mourir (to die) can be thought of as coming and going in metaphorical terms. The Alamo d'être illustrates this group of verbs. 148

150 A few of these verbs of movement (monter, descendre, sortir, passer, retourner) may sometimes take a direct object, thus becoming transitive. When they do, the auxiliary used is avoi r, instead of être. Example: Tex est sorti. Tex n'a pas sorti la poubelle. Tex went out. Tex did not take out the garbage. It is important to note that many intransitive verbs of movement, like courir and marcher, do not use être but avoi r. The pronominal verbs form another important group of verbs which use être as the auxiliary in the passé composé. irregular past participles The past participles of the verbs that use être as an auxiliary are regular except for the following: infinitive translation past participle venir to come venu devenir to become devenu revenir to come back revenu naître to be born né mourir to die mort agreement of the past participle The past participle of a verb which takes être agrees in gender and number with the subject; that means an -e is added to the past participle to agree with a feminine subject and an -s is added for a plural subject. If the subject is feminine plural, -es is added. Joe-Bob: Tex, Corey et toi, vous êtes rentrés de l'alamo? Tex: Oui. Mais Tammy et Bette sont restées à San Antonio pour faire des achats. Corey: Tu n'as pas entendu? Tout d'un coup Tammy est devenue toute pâle et elle est tombée dans la rivière! Joe-Bob: Tex, did you and Corey come back from the Alamo? Tex: Yes. But Tammy and Bette stayed in San Antonio to go shopping. Corey: Didn't you hear? All of a sudden Tammy turned very pale and she fell in the river! Joe-Bob: Mais, qu'est-ce qui s'est passé? Corey: Calme-toi. Elle n'est pas morte! Tex et moi sommes arri vés pour la sauver! Joe-Bob: But, what happened? Corey: Calm down. She didn't die! Tex and I arrived to save her! 149

151 future: usage page: tap4 A pronominal verb is a verb which has a reflexive pronoun, that is, a pronoun referring back to its subject. These verbs are easily recognized by the pronoun se before the infinitive: se lever, se laver, se promener, etc. formation In the passé composé, pronominal verbs are conjugated with être as their auxiliary. Past participles of pronominal verbs are formed like nonpronominal past participles. Note that the reflexive pronoun (me, te, se, nous, vous, se) precedes the auxiliary. s'amuser 'to have fun' je me suis amusé(e), I had fun tu t'es amusé(e), you had fun il / on s'est amusé, he / one had fun elle s'est amusée, she had fun nous nous sommes amusé(e)s, we had fun vous vous êtes amusé(e)(s), you had fun ils se sont amusés, they had fun elles se sont amusées, they had fun past parti ci ple agreement It is important to note that, in most cases, the past participle of pronominal verbs agrees in gender and number with the gender and number of the reflexive pronoun, that is, an e is added to the past participle to agree with a feminine subject and an s is added for a plural subject. Tammy: Je me suis réveillée très tôt ce matin. Tex: Moi, je me suis réveillé très tard! Tammy: I got up really early this morning. Tex: I got up really late! past parti ci ple agreement: excepti ons The past participle does not agree if there is a direct object following the verb which is a part of the body: Tammy: Je me suis lavée. Et ensuite je me suis lavé les cheveux. Tammy: I washed. And then, I washed my hair. In the second example, the direct object les cheveux is placed after the verb, so there is no agreement. Furthermore, in cases where the reflexive pronoun is an indirect object rather than a direct object, as in the verb se parl er (parl er à ), there is no agreement. Tammy: Puis, Bette et moi, nous nous sommes parl é. Tammy: Then, Bette and I talked to each other. negation In the negative, the ne precedes the reflexive pronoun and the pas follows the auxiliary: je ne me suis pas amusé(e) nous ne nous sommes pas amusé(e)(s) tu ne t'es pas amusé(e) il / on ne s'est pas amusé elle ne s'est pas amusée vous ne vous êtes pas amusé(e)(s) ils ne se sont pas amusés elles ne se sont pas amusées 150

152 Tammy: Bonjour Tex! Oh là là! Tu ne t'es pas rasé ce matin? Tex: Oh ça va hein! Mon réveil n'a pas sonné! Je me suis réveillé trop tard. Et toi, tu t'es rasée? Tammy: Monsieur Tex s'est levé du pied gauche aujourd'hui! Tammy: Hi Tex! Oh dear! You did not shave this morning? Tex: Oh that's enough, OK! My alarm clock did not go off! I woke up too late. Did you shave? Tammy: Mister Tex got up on the wrong side of the bed today! 151

153 futur antérieur page: tap5 The imperfect tense (l'imparfait), one of several past tenses in French, is used to describe states of being and habitual actions in the past. It also has several idiomatic uses. stem The stem of the imparfait is the first person plural (nous) form of the present tense, minus the -ons. The imparfait stem is regular for all verbs except être: verb present tense 'nous' form imparfait stem -er verbs: parler nous parlons parl - -ir verbs: finir nous finissons finiss- -re verbs: descendre nous descendons descendfaire nous faisons faisprendre nous prenons prenpartir nous partons partêtre nous sommes ét- endings To the stem, add the endings -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, and -aient. Note that -ais, -ais, -ait, and -aient are all pronounced alike. That means that the singular forms and 3rd person plural (the boot) all sound the same! danser 'to dance' je dansais tu dansais il / elle / on dansait nous dansions vous dansiez ils / elles dansaient finir 'to finish' il / elle / on finissait je finissais tu finissais ils / elles finissaient nous finissions vous finissiez être 'to be' j'étais tu étai s il / elle / on était nous étions vous étiez ils / elles étaient 152

154 Stem changing verbs like voyager and commencer add an e or ç to maintain the soft g or s sound, before imparfait endings which begin with a (je voyageais, tu voyageais, il / elle / on voyageait, ils / elles voyageaient), in other words, before all forms except nous and vous (nous voyagions, vous voyagiez). The imparfait of pronominal verbs is regular, with the addition of the reflexive pronoun: s'amuser 'to have fun' je m'amusais tu t'amusais il / elle / on s'amusait nous nous amusions vous vous amusiez ils / elles s'amusaient The negation is formed as usual by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb: Je ne dansais pas (I wasn't dancing / I didn't used to dance), Tu ne t'amusais pas (You weren't having a good time / You didn't used to have a good time). Tex: Je suis allé chez Tammy ce matin. Je voulais la voir, mais elle n'était pas chez elle. J'avais un cadeau à lui donner. Je ne pouvais quand même pas le laisser devant sa porte! Donc je l'ai offert à Bette! J'espère qu'elle l'aimera. Joe-Bob: Bravo! Quel tombeur tu fais! Tex: I went to Tammy's this morning. I wanted to see her, but she was not home. I had a present to give her. I could not really leave it outside her door! So I gave it to Bette! I hope she will like it. Joe-Bob: Bravo! What a Casanova you are! 153

155 imparfait: states of being, habitual actions page: tap6 The imperfect tense (l'imparfait) has two primary uses: to describe on-going actions and states of being in the past, and to state habitual actions in the past. The imparfait also has several idiomatic uses. The passé composé and imparfait are each used quite differently in narration. states of bei ng or past descri pti on The imparfait is used to describe people, places, conditions or situations in the past. Some verbs occur more frequently in the imparfait when they are in the past since they typically describe states of being: être, avoir, vouloir, pouvoir. But these verbs do sometimes occur in the passé composé. Quand Edouard était adolescent, il n'avait qu'un rêve devenir un grand cuisinier. Il voulait créer des chefsd'oeuvre culinaires. Notre jeune escargot gourmand, qui adorait la cuisine française classique, fréquentait les meilleures tables de Paris. When Edouard was a teenager, he had only one dream to become a great chef. He wanted to create culinary masterpieces. Our young foodenthusiast snail, who loved classical French cooking, frequented the best Parisian restaurants. habi tual acti ons in the past The imparfait is also used to state habitual actions in the past. These past habits are often translated as 'used to, or 'would.' Distinguish between the use of 'would' for habitual past actions (imparfait) and the use of 'would' for the conditional. Note that the imparfait may also be translated by the simple past in English; however, the context, and often adverbs, let you know the action is a past habit. Edouard: Tu te rappelles, en été à Paris, quand il faisait chaud? On allait toujours à 10 heures du soir chez Berthillon... Oh, là, là, leurs glaces, leurs sorbets--fraise, framboise, noisette, pistache, des parfums exotiques. Et puis, on se promenait le long des quais, on voyait la Seine qui coulait, on chantait, on se récitait même des vers. Ah, Paris la nuit, Paris là-bas, mmm, en été. Edouard: Do you remember, in the summer in Paris, when the weather was hot? We always used to go to Berthillon's at 10 o'clock in the evening... Oh, la, la, their ice cream, their sorbets--strawberry, raspberry, hazelnut, pistachio, exotic flavors. And then, we would take walks along the quays. We would see the Seine which was flowing. We would sing, we would even recite verses. Ah, Paris in the night, Paris over there, mmm, in the summer. 154

imparfait: idiomatic uses page: tap7 The imperfect tense (l'imparfait) has two primary uses: to describe on-going actions or states of being in the past, and to state habitual actions in the past.

156 imparfait: idiomatic uses page: tap7 The imperfect tense (l'imparfait) has two primary uses: to describe on-going actions or states of being in the past, and to state habitual actions in the past. The imparfait also has several idiomatic uses found in the following contexts: suggestions The imparfait is used to suggest an action in phrases beginning with Si...? on Tammy: Si on achetait une grosse Suburban? Tex: Si on achetait une Harley Davidson? Tammy: What if we bought a big Suburban? (note: 'on' is often used in the sense of 'nous') Tex: What about buying a Harley Davidson? wi shes The imparfait is used to express wishes such as 'If only we didn't have a test this week!' The French equivalent structure, si + imparfait, may, or may not, contain the adverb seulement: Tex: Si (seulement) on avait plus d'argent! Tammy: Ah, si (seulement) mes parents nous prêtaient de l'argent! Tex: If (only) we had more money! Tammy: If only my parents would lend us some money! Note that the question mark at the end of the sentence indicates a suggestion, and the exclamation mark a wish. In spoken French, however, you have to rely on context and intonation to distinguish between wish and suggestion. Tammy: Si je me fai sais tatouer? Tex: Si seulement je pouvais avoir une moto! Tammy: What if I got tattooed? Tex: If only I could have a motorcycle! For other uses of si + imparfait, see si clauses + conditional. The imparfait also occurs in idiomatic uses with depuis and venir de. 155

157 narration: passé composé vs. imparfait page: tap8 The passé composé is used in French in answer the question 'What happened?' On the other hand, you will usually put a verb in the imparfait if it answers the question 'What was going on when something else happened?' Generally, the passé composé is used to relate events while the imparfait is used to describe what was going on in the past, states of being in the past, or past habits. All this takes on special importance in narration of past actions, when both tenses often occur in the same story. Narrating a story entails both describing a setting (habitual actions, atmosphere, places and people) and recounting a plot or a series of events, actions, changes of feelings or thoughts. In general, all stories have a well delineated plot line of events, the foreground, and a background of supporting details and description. Some literary texts might subvert this rule but this is out of a conscious effort to surprise or unsettle their reader. imparfait (setscene) Tammy habitait à Fort Worth... Tammy lived in Forth Worth... passé composé (event) Avant, et puis un jour, elle a déménagé. Before, and then, one day, she moved. The following adverbs are commonly associated with each of the past tenses: adverbs/imparfait tous les jours, tous les matins... every day, every morning chaque jour, chaque matin, chaque mois... each day, each morning, each month en général, généralement, d'habitude... in general, usually autrefois, à l'époque... in the past, long ago, at the time toujours, souvent... always, often rarement... rarely adverbs/passé composé un jour, un matin, un soir... one day, one morning, one evening soudain, brusquement, brutalement... suddenly, abruptly, brusquely tout d'un coup, tout à coup... all of a sudden, suddenly tout de suite, i mmédi atement... right away, immediately d'abord, enfin... first of all, finally puis, ensuite... then, next Usually, when verbs like être, avoi r, pouvoir, vouloir, and savoi r are in a past narration, they will be in the imparfait, since they most likely describe a past state of being or condition. However, when these verbs (and others like them) occur in the passé composé, they indicate a change of state or a change of condition. Compare these examples: Tammy: Quand j'avais 15 ans, j'habitais à Tammy: When I was 15, I used to live in Fort Worth. Quand j'ai eu 18 ans, j'ai déménagé à Austin. When I turned 18, I moved to Austin. 156

158 The passé composé is also generally used for activities that lasted for a precise length of time, with a definite beginning and end. On the other hand, the imparfait is used for indefinite lengths of time. Look at these examples: definite period of time: De 1997 à 1998, Pendant un an, Entre dix-huit et dix-neuf ans, Tex a été vendeur de T-shirts. indefinite period of time: Avant, Quand il était enfant, cette époque-là, Tex était dans un couvent de Lyon. A But ultimately it is the entire context that determines which of these two past tenses to use and not a given adverb. For example, in the sentences below, the same adverb, un jour, is used with the imperfect or the passé composé according to the context. Un jour, Tex vendait des T-shirts à Paris quand il a été arrêté pour activité illégale. One day, Tex was selling T-shirts in Paris when he was arrested for illegal activity. (The imparfait sets the scene to be interrupted) Un jour, les autorités françaises ont expulsé Tex. One day, the French authorities deported Tex. (Event) In the following story, note how the narration opens with an extended description of Tex' early childhood in the imparfait, which serves as explanatory background to the plot-line events in the passé composé. Quand Tex était tout petit, il habitait dans la banlieue de Houston avec sa famille. Ce petit tatou, curieux de nature, aimait toujours faire de longues promenades avec ses amis pour explorer les coins et recoins de la banlieue, surtout les autoroutes! Un jour, pendant une promenade, il s'est perdu. Heureusement, après des heures et des heures, il a trouvé l'entrée de aéroport Bush International. Fasciné par le bruit et le mouvement, il s'est précipité vers les avions. Tandis qu'il examinait un avion de plus près, un homme l'a brusquement pris et il l'a jeté à l'intérieur avec les bagages. Huit heures plus tard, l'avion est arrivé à Paris, où Tex commencerait sa nouvelle vie française! When Tex was very small, he lived in the suburbs of Houston with his family. This little armadillo, curious by nature, always loved to take long walks with his friends to explore the nooks and crannies of the suburbs, above all the highways! One day, during a walk, he got lost. Fortunately, after hours and hours, he found the entrance to the Bush International Airport. Fascinated by all the noise and motion, he rushed to the planes. As he was examining a plane more closely, a man abruptly took him and threw him inside with the baggage. Eight hours later, the plane arrived in Paris, where Tex would start his new French life! Tex a passé le reste de son enfance en France. En fait, il est devenu cent pour cent français. Quand il était adolescent, il se considérait comme un disciple de Sartre. Il ne connaissait rien au baseball et détestait tout ce qui était américain. Mais en 1998, tout d'un coup sa vie a changé quand il a découvert que ses parents étaient... américains. Tex spent the rest of his childhood in France. In fact, he became one hundred per cent French. When he was an adolescent, he considered himself a disciple of Sartre. He knew nothing about baseball and he detested everything American. But in 1998, all of a sudden, his life changed when he discovered that his parents were... American. 157

159 plus-que-parfait page: tap9 formati on The pluperfect (le plus -que-parfait) is formed with the auxiliary in the imparfait followed by the past participle of the verb. The choice of auxiliary, être or avoir, is the same as for the passé composé (the Alamo of être applies). Plus-que-parfait = auxiliary in the imparfait + past participle of verb manger 'to eat' j'avais mangé, I had eaten tu avais mangé, you had eaten il, elle / on avait mangé, he, she (it) / one had eaten nous avions mangé, we had eaten vous aviez mangé, you had eaten ils / elles avai ent mangé, they had eaten aller 'to go' j'étais all é(e), I had gone tu étais all é(e), you had gone nous étions allé(e)s, we had gone vous étiez allé(e)(s), you had gone il, elle / on était allé(e), he, she (it) / one had gone ils / elles étaient allé(e)s, they had gone The negation is formed in the usual manner by placing ne... pas around the conjugated verb, which in this case is the auxiliary: Je n'avais pas mangé (I had not eaten), Je n'étais pas allé (I had not gone), etc. uses In past narration, the plus-que-parfait is used to express an action which precedes another past action or moment. In other words, the action in the plus-que-parfait is prior to another past action or moment. In English the plus-que- parfait is indicated by had + past participle. In affirmative sentences in French, it is often, but not always, accompanied by the adverb déj à (already). A l'âge de sept ans, Tex avait déjà rédigé dix poèmes. Quelques années plus tard, il avait abandonné tout espoir de gloire littéraire. Mais il a changé d'avis quand il a lu les poèmes à Tammy. Elle a adoré les poèmes innocents que Tex avait écrits pendant sa jeunesse. At the age of seven, Tex had already composed ten poems. A few years later, he had abandoned all hope of literary fame. But he changed his mind when he read the poems to Tammy. She adored the innocent poems that Tex had written during his youth. Not all instances of had + past participle in English are translated into plus-que-parfait in French. For example, in French depuis is usually used with the imperfect (not the pluperfect) and 'had just done something' is generally translated by venir de in the imparfait. Le public littéraire attendait depuis des années la nouvelle poésie de Tex quand il a enfin retrouvé son inspiration. The literary public had been waiting for years for new poetry from Tex when at last he found his inspiration again. En fait, Tex venait de commencer un nouveau poème quand son éditeur a téléphoné. In fact, Tex had just started a new poem when his editor called. 158

160 Contrast the plus-que-parfait in this sentence with the examples above: Tex avait (déjà) commencé son poème quand son éditeur a téléphoné. Tex had begun his poem when his publisher called. Remember that the opposite of déjà is the negative expression pas encore, just as 'already' is replaced by 'yet' in English. Tex n'avait pas (encore ) fini son poème quand son éditeur a téléphoné. Tex had not (yet) finished his poem when his editor called. In French and in English alike, the plus-que-parfait is also used to express wishes about the past, as in this example: Editeur: Si seulement tu avais fini ton nouveau poème! Editor: If only you had finished your new poem! (but you haven't) The plus-que-parfait is also commonly used in si clauses followed by the past conditional. For example: Tex à son éditeur: Imbécile! Si vous ne m'aviez pas interrompu, j'aurais pu finir mon nouveau poème. A cause de vous, je sens que je perds à nouveau mon inspiration. Editeur: Mon Dieu, si j'avais su combien les artistes étaient difficiles, je serais devenu comptable! Tex to his editor: Imbecile! If you had not interrupted me, I would have been able to finish my new poem. Because of you, I'm losing my inspiration again. Editor: My God. If I had known how difficult artists were, I'd have become an accountant! 159

161 passé simple page: tap10 The passé simple is a past tense reserved primarily for written discourse. It may, however, be used in very formal spoken language, such as presidential addresses, sermons, or news broadcasting. It has traditionally been used only for events completed in the distant, historical past; however, twentieth century writers sometimes use it for stylistic effect. The passé simple will generally be translated into English by a preterit, that is, the simple past: 'I talked'. But like the passé composé, the passé simple is used in French only to mention changes and events, while the imparfait remains the tense used for describing the setting, the atmosphere, an ongoing state of mind, or the general situation. regular infinitives ending in -er, -ir & -re For all regular -er, -ir, and -re verbs, the passé simple is formed by dropping the infinitive ending, the final two letters of the infinitive, and replacing them with the the following endings. There is no auxiliary and this is the reason why it is called a 'simple' tense: it is a one-word tense (unlike the two-word passé composé). Many verbs, such as aller, sortir, and suivre, which are irregular in the present indicative follow the paradigm of regular verbs in their passé simple forms. endings for -er verbs endings for -ir & -re verbs -ai -âmes -is -î mes -as -âtes -is -îtes -a -èrent -it -irent parler 'to speak' je parlai tu parlas il / elle / on parla nous parlâmes vous parlâtes ils / elles parlèrent finir 'to finish' je finis tu finis il / elle / on finit nous finî mes vous finîtes ils / elles finirent perdre 'to lose' je perdis tu perdis il / elle / on perdit nous perdî mes vous perdîtes ils / elles perdirent 160

162 i rregul ar verbs: avoi r, être, fai re These verbs are irregular in the passé simple. avoir 'to have' j'eus tu eus il / elle / on eut nous eûmes vous eûtes ils / elles eurent être 'to be' je fus tu fus il / elle / on fut nous fûmes vous fûtes ils / elles furent faire 'to do' je fis tu fis il / elle / on fi nous fîmes vous fîtes ils / elles firent other i rregul ar verbs There are two sets of endings for the passé simple of irregular verbs endings in -i- endings in -u- -is -î mes -us -ûmes -is -îtes -us -ûtes -it -i rent -ut -urent Irregular verbs generally have irregular stems for the passé simple. In some cases, the stems are the same as the past participle of the verb. Stems of a few other verbs, marked with an *, are completely irregular (such as naître, mourir, voir). The endings are regular, however, except for venir and tenir which have irregular plural forms. infinitive past participle passé simple boire connaître bu connu je bus, tu bus, il but, nous bûmes, vous bûtes, ils burent je connus, tu connus, il connut, nous connûmes, vous connûtes, ils connurent croire devoir cru dû je crus, tu crus, il crut, nous crûmes, vous crûtes, ils crurent je dus, tu dus, il dut, nous dûmes, vous dûtes, ils durent 161

163 dire dit je dis, tu dis, il dit, nous dîmes, vous dîtes, ils dirent écrire écrit j'écrivis, tu écrivis, il écrivit, nous écrivîmes, vous écrivîtes, ils écrivirent falloir fallu il fallut lire lu je lus, tu lus, il lut, nous lûmes, vous lûtes, ils lurent mettre mis je mis, tu mis, il mit, nous mîmes, vous mîtes, ils mirent mourir * mort je mourus, tu mourus, il mourut, nous mourûmes, vous mourûtes, ils moururent naître * né je naquis, tu naquis, il naquit, nous naquîmes, vous naquîtes, ils naquirent ouvrir ouvert j'ouvris, tu ouvris, il ouvrit, nous ouvrîmes, vous ouvrîtes, ils ouvrirent pleuvoir plu il plut pouvoir pu je pus, tu pus, il put, nous pûmes, vous pûtes, ils purent prendre pris je pris, tu pris, il prit, nous prîmes, vous prîtes, ils prirent recevoir reçu je reçus, tu reçus, il reçut, nous reçûmes, vous reçûtes, ils reçurent rire ri je ris, tu ris, il rit, nous rîmes, vous rîtes, ils rirent savoir su je sus, tu sus, il sut, nous sûmes, vous sûtes, ils surent tenir * tenu je tins, tu tins, il tint, nous tî nmes, vous tî ntes, ils ti nrent venir * venu je vi ns, tu vins, il vi nt, nous vî nmes, vous vî ntes, ils vinrent vivre vécu je vécus, tu vécus, il vécut, nous vécûmes, vous vécûtes, ils vécurent voir * vu je vis, tu vis, il vit, nous vîmes, vous vîtes, ils virent vouloir voulu je voulus, tu voulus, il voulut, nous voulûmes, vous voulûtes, ils voulurent See the conjugation reference for the conjugation of other irregular verbs in the passé simple. 162

French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource Rita: Allez les enfants, c'est l'heure d'aller se coucher! Les enfants: Ooh! Maman, maman, lis-nous une histoire! Oui, une histoire.

164 French Language Studies Grammar Reference Resource Rita: Allez les enfants, c'est l'heure d'aller se coucher! Les enfants: Ooh! Maman, maman, lis-nous une histoire! Oui, une histoire... Rita: Bon, d'accord. Installez-vous. Je commence... "Il était une fois une ravissante jeune fille du nom de Cendrillon. Pour lui faire plaisir, son père épousa en seconde noce une veuve qui avait deux filles, Anastasia et Javotte. Mais hélas, le brave homme mourut peu après. Tout changea alors pour la fillette. Sa belle-mère lui confia les tâches les plus rudes et la força à coucher au grenier. Un jour, le roi organisa un grand bal pour marier son fils. La famille de Cendrillon fut invitée Anastasia, Javotte et leur mère se rendirent au bal mais défendirent à Cendrillon de les accompagner. Une fois seule, Cendrillon se mit à pleurer. Soudain, Cendrillon entendit une voix, la voix de sa marraine la Fée..." Rita: Ah... ils se sont endormis! Rita: Let's go, children. It's time to go to bed! Children: Ooh! Mommy, mommy, read us a story! Yes, a story... Rita: Oh, OK. Get settled. Here we go... "Once upon a time there was a beautiful young girl named Cinderella. To make her happy, her (widowed) father married for a second time a widow who had two girls, Anastasia and Javotte. But, alas, the good man died soon after. Everything changed for the young girl. Her stepmother gave her the hardest chores and forced her to sleep in the attic. One day, the king organized a grand ball to marry his son. Cinderella's family was invited. Anastasia and Javotte and their mother went to the ball, but they forbade Cinderella to go with them. Once alone, Cinderella started to cry. Suddenly, Cinderella heard a voice, the voice of her fairy godmother... " Rita: Ah... they have fallen asleep! 163

165 passé antérieur page: tap11 Like the 'passé simple', the passé antérieur is a literary tense. They are often found together in the same text. The passé antérieur is used in literature, in formal writing, and in very formal speeches, when speaking of past events which are prior to other past actions; it is the literary equivalent of the plus-que-parfait. In other words, it is used for a past action that was completed before another action in the past (usually expressed in the passé simple). formati on The passé antérieur is formed with the passé simple of the appropriate auxiliary (avoi r or être) plus the past participle of the main verb. Passé antérior = auxiliary in the literary past + past participle of main verb parler 'to speak' j'eus parlé, I had spoken tu eus parlé, you had spoken il / elle / on eut parlé, he / she / it had spoken nous eûmes parlé, we had spoken vous eûtes parlé, you had spoken ils / elles eurent parlé, they had spoken aller 'to go' je fus allé(e), I had gone tu fus allé(e), you had gone il / elle / on fut allé(e), he / she / it had gone nous fûmes allé(e)s, we had gone vous fûtes allé(e)(s), you had gone ils / elles furent allé(e)s, they had gone For a list of verbs that use être as an auxiliary, like al l er, see the Alamo of être. Remember that all pronominal verbs require être as the auxiliary verb. se coucher 'to go to bed' je me fus couché(e), I had gone to bed tu te fus couché(e), you had gone to bed il / elle / on se fut couché(e), he / she / it had gone to bed nous nous fûmes couché(e)s, we had gone to bed vous vous fûtes couché(e)(s), you had gone to bed ils / elles se furent couché(e)s, they had gone to bed 164

uses The passé antérieur occurs most often in subordinate clauses; it is introduced by conjunctions such as après (after), aussitôt que or dèsque (as soon as).

166 uses The passé antérieur occurs most often in subordinate clauses; it is introduced by conjunctions such as après (after), aussitôt que or dèsque (as soon as). Note that, in this case, the main clause is always in the passé simple. The English equivalent is usually (but not always) had + past participle. prior action in the past (passé antérieur) Aussitôt qu'il fut né, As soon as he was born, Après qu'il eut vécu quelques années à Paris, After he had lived several years in Paris, Quand il eut publié son premier recueil de poèmes romantiques, When he had published his first collection of romantic poems, action in the past (passé simple) Tex commença à parler. Tex began to speak. Tex retourna dans son pays d'origine Tex returned to his native land. il y eut un grand scandale. there was a big scandal. With quand and l orsque (when), the choice of tense depends on the meaning of each clause, as to which action occurs first. In the last example, Tex published his poems first (passé antérieur in the dependent clause) and then there was a scandal. However, the passé antérieur may also occur in the main clause, and the passé simple in the dependent clause: Quand il arriva au Texas, Tex eut déjà fait la connaissance de Tammy. Les enfants: Maman, maman, raconte-nous la suite de l'histoire de Cendrillon! Rita: Bon, d'accord. "On défendit à Cendrillon d'aller au bal du roi et on lui ordonna de faire le ménage dans toute la maison. Une fois seule, Cendrillon se mit au travail... Quand elle eut fini de nettoyer les fenêtres, elle fit les lits. Lorsque les chambres furent propres, elle fit la vaisselle. Enfin, après qu'elle eut rangé toute la maison, elle éclata en sanglots.... Alors sa marraine la Fée apparut..." On entend les enfants ronfler. Children: Mommy, mommy, tell us the rest of the story of Cinderella! Rita: Oh, OK. "Cinderella was forbidden to go to the king's ball and was ordered to clean the house from top to bottom. Once alone, Cinderella started to work... When she had finished cleaning the windows, she made the beds. When the bedrooms were clean, she did the dishes. Finally, after she had tidied up the whole house, she broke into sobs.... Then her fairy godmother appeared..." Sound of the children snoring. 165

167 futur proche formation There are two future tenses in French, the simple future and the near future (le futur proche). The futur proche is usually translated into English as going + infinitive (e.g., going to eat, going to drink, going to talk). The futur proche is characteristic of spoken French but may be used in informal writing. It is formed with the verb aller (to go) conjugated in the present tense followed by an infinitive nager 'to swim' je vais nager, I am going to swim tu vas nager, you are going to swim il, elle / on va nager, he, she (it) / one is going to swim nous allons nager, we are going to swim vous allez nager, you are going to swim ils / elles vont nager, they are going to swim To negate the futur proche, place ne... pas around the conjugated form of aller: Je ne vais pas nager. (I am not going to swim). Corey: Je vais aller à Barton Springs. J'adore l'eau. Je vais nager. Tu viens avec moi, Bette? Bette: Tu es fou! Il fait trop froid! Je nevais pas nager! Corey: I am going to go to Barton Springs. I love water. I am going to swim. Are you coming with me, Bette? Bette: Are you crazy? It is too cold! I am not going to swim! Uses The futur proche is used to refer to most future events in informal conversation. For details on usage see future: usage. Corey: Tex! Tammy! Nous allons aller à Barton Springs. Bette: Mais il y a de gros nuages gris, ilva pleuvoir. Corey: Chouette! Je vais nager sous la pluie. Corey: Tex! Tammy! We are going to go to Barton Springs. Bette: But there are big gray clouds. It's going to rain. Corey: Great! I am going to swim in the rain. aller in the imperfect + infinitive The construction aller + infinitive is also found with the verb aller in the imperfect (l'imparfait) to indicate what someone was going to do. For example: Les copains allaient partir pour Barton Springs, quand ils ont vu un éclair. Bette: Corey, tu vas te faire électrocuter! Moi, je vais faire du shopping. Qui va veniravec moi? The friends were going to leave for Barton Springs, when they saw lightening. Bette: Corey, you are going to get yourself electrocuted! I'm going to do some shopping. Who's going to come with me?. 166

168 regular subjunctive page: tas1 The subjunctive is one of four moods in French (indicative, imperative, subjunctive and conditional). A mood is a grammatical term which helps categorize verb tenses. The subjunctive mood is used more frequently in French than in English. It has two tenses: present and past. It expresses several concepts, such as a wish, hope, or doubt, as well as an obligation or a necessity. One such expression which is always followed by the subjunctive is il faut que (it is necessary that...). -er, -re, and -ir verbs The subjunctive endings are the same for all verbs: -e, -es, -e, -ions, -iez, -ent. For most verbs, the subjunctive mood is formed by dropping the -ent ending from the third person plural of the present indicative and adding the subjunctive endings. Note the similarities between the present indicative and the present subjunctive of -er verbs. This is due to the fact that the same stem is used for the subjunctive and the present indicative; the endings are also identical except for the nous and vous forms. This means that the 'boot' forms of the subjunctive of regular -er verbs look and sound exactly like the present indicative. Because the subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses, the subordinating conjunction que is usually included as part of the paradigm for the subjunctive forms. parler 'to speak'... que je parle... que nous parlions... que tu parles... que vous parliez... qu'il/elle/on parle... qu'ils/elles parlent finir 'to finish'... que je finisse... que nous finissions... que tu finisses... que vous finissiez... qu'il/elle/on finisse... qu'ils/elles finissent attendre 'to wait for'... que j'attende... que nous attendions... que tu attendes... que vous attendiez... qu'il/elle/on attende... qu'ils/elles attendent In the singular for -re and -ir verbs, the subjunctive looks and sounds different from the present indicative since the stem is different for the two moods present indicative present subjunctive je finis... que je finisse j'attends... que j'attende 167

Note that, for all conjugations, the third person plural of the present subjunctive always looks and sounds like the present indicative since the stem for the subjunctive comes from the third person

169 Note that, for all conjugations, the third person plural of the present subjunctive always looks and sounds like the present indicative since the stem for the subjunctive comes from the third person plural. proctive ils parlent ils finissent ils attendent... qu'ils parlent... qu'ils finissent... qu'ils attendent irregular verbs with regular subjunctive forms (dormir, etc. ) Many verbs that are irregular in the present indicative are regular in forming the subjunctive. In other words, the stem is formed by removing the -ent ending from the third person plural of the present indicative and then the endings -e, -es, - e, -ions, -iez, -ent are added. Following are some irregular verbs, with the corresponding regular subjunctive forms. dormir to sleep... que je dorme sortir to go out... que je sorte partir to leave... que je parte lire to read... que je lise sourire to smile... que je souri e dire to say... que je dise écrire to write... que j'écri ve mettre to put... que je mette connaître to know... que je connaisse stem changing verbs Verbs with stem changes in the present indicative have one stem for the subjunctive of the 'nous' and 'vous' forms and another stem for the 'boot' forms. These verbs, such as acheter, appeler, manger, commencer, use the same two changes in the present subjunctive. Tex: Il faut que j'appel le Paw-Paw ce soir. Tammy: D'accord. A quelle heure est-ce qu'il faut que nous appelions Paw-Paw? Tex: I have to call Paw-Paw tonight. Tammy: Okay. What time do we have to call Paw-Paw? Tex explique les règles à ses étudiants: Il faut que vous parliez clairement; pas de chewing-gum! Bien sûr, il faut qu'on fnisse avant midi. Le déjeuner, c'est sacré! Joe-Bob, il faut que tu attendes la fin du cours avant de dormir. Et il faut que nous sortions ensemble après le cours de révision pour prendre un verre. Tex explains the rules to his students: You must speak clearly; no chewing gum! Of course, we must end before meal times. Lunch is sacred! Joe-Bob, you must wait until the end of class before sleeping. We must go out together after the review to have a drink. 168

170 irregular subjunctive page: tas2 The subjunctive is one of four moods in French (indicative, imperative, subjunctive and conditional). A mood is a grammatical term which helps categorize verb tenses. The subjunctive is used more frequently in French than in English. One important use of the subjunctive is after the expression il faut que, indicating necessity. The subjunctive also expresses a feeling or emotion such as a wish, hope, or doubt. For most verbs, the subjunctive mood is formed by dropping the -ent ending from the third person plural of the present indicative and adding the endings: -e, -es, -e, -ions, -iez, -ent. This is known as the regular formation of the subjunctive. verbs with two stems There are several categories of irregular subjunctive formations. The first of these categories concerns verbs with two stems in the subjunctive. These verbs have a similar two-stem irregularity in the present indicative (for example, 'ils viennent' BUT 'nous venons'). The boot stem (for the forms je, tu, il / elle, ils / elles) is the third person plural of the present indicative, the very same as the stem for regular formation of the subjunctive. The first person plural of the present indicative provides the second stem for the 'nous' and 'vous' forms of the subjunctive. The regular subjunctive endings are added to these two stems. venir 'to come' que je vienne que tu viennes qu'il / elle / on vienne que nous venions que vous veniez qu'ils / elles viennent In addition to venir, here is a list of the most frequent verbs with two stems in the subjunctive: infinitive je, tu, il/elle/on, ils/elles boot stem, for: 2nd stem, for: nous, vous aller (to go) que j'aille que nous alli ons boire (to drink) que je boive que nous buvions croire (to believe) que je croie que nous croyions devoir (to have to) que je doi ve que nous devions mourir (to die) que je meure que nous mourions prendre (to take) que je prenne que nous prenions recevoir (to receive) que je reçoive que nous recevi ons tenir (to hold) que je tienne que nous tenions voir (to see) que je voie que nous voyions vouloir (to want) que je veuille que nous voulions irregular verbs: avoir and être Avoir and être are highly irregular in the subjunctive and must be memorized. Note that the 'nous' and 'vous' forms are spelled with the letter y (instead of the i characteristic of the regular subjunctive endings). Note in particular the pronunciation of the subjunctive forms of avoir, which have the same vowel sound as found in j'ai (I have), the first person singular in the present indicative. avoir 'to have' que j'ai e que tu aies qu'il / elle / on ait que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'ils / elles aient 169

être 'to be' que je sois que tu sois qu'il / elle / on soit que nous soyons que vous soyez qu'ils / elles soient Note the similarity of the subjunctive forms of the verbs être and avoi r to their

171 être 'to be' que je sois que tu sois qu'il / elle / on soit que nous soyons que vous soyez qu'ils / elles soient Note the similarity of the subjunctive forms of the verbs être and avoi r to their respective imperative forms. irregular verbs: faire, savoir, pouvoir The verbs faire, savoir and pouvoir have completely irregular stems. The endings, however, are regular. faire 'to do' que je fasse que tu fasses qu'il / elle / on fasse que nous fassions que vous fassiez qu'ils / elles fassent infinitive savoir (to know) pouvoir (to be able) first person present subjunctive que je sache que je puisse Note the similarity between the subjunctive and imperative forms of the verb savoir Paw-Paw donne des conseils à son petit- fils, Tex. Paw-Paw: Tex, mon cher, il faut que tu saches que la vie est courte. Tammy est une tatou formidable. Tu ne vas pas trouver une meilleure femme. Il ne faut pas que Tammy et toi ayez peur de vous marier. Paw-Paw is giving advice to his grandson Tex. Paw-Paw: Tex, my dear, you have to know that life is short. Tammy is a fabulous armadillo. You are not going to find a better wife. You and Tammy must not be afraid to get married. Hurry up! As I said Dépêchez-vous! Comme je l'ai dit... la vie est courte. Moi, je veux seulement que vous soyez heureux. Et une autre chose: après votre mariage, il faut que vous veniez me voir. Je suis tout seul en Louisiane et la famille me manque. Il faut que nous fassions plus de choses ensemble. Il faut que j'aie plus de compagnie.... life is short. As for me, I only want you to be happy. And another thing. After your marriage, you must come see me. I am all alone in Louisiana and I miss my family. We have to do more things together. I've got to have more company. 170

172 subjunctive usage: obligation page: tas3a The subjunctive is required after impersonal expressions of necessity and obligation. An impersonal expression is any expression introduced by the impersonal pronoun il, usually translated into English by 'it'. One of the most frequent is il faut que (it is necessary to). When the main clause uses il faut que, the verb of the dependent clause which follows must be in the subjunctive. Note that there are always two different subjects in the two clauses. Paw-Paw: Tex, il faut que tu choisisses le vin. PawPaw: Tex, it is necessary that you choose the wine. Note that the expression il faut que is stronger and more emphatic than the verb 'devoir' (which is followed by an infinitive): Tex doit choisir le vin (Tex must / is supposed to choose the wine). Below are other common impersonal expressions of obligation and necessity. Note that they are all followed by the conjunction que which introduces a subordinate clause with a verb in the subjunctive: il est important que, it is important that il est nécessaire que, it is necessary that il est essentiel que, it is essential that il est inévitable que, it is unavoidable that il vaut mieux que, it is better that il est préférable que, it is preferable that il est indispensable que, it is indispensible that Paw-Paw: Peut-être que ce ne sont pas mes affaires, mais... j'ai remarqué que Tammy a choisi le vin à ta place. Ecoute, mon cher, il est préférable que les hommes choississent le vin et que les femmes fassent la cuisine. Tex: Merci pour les conseils, PawPaw, mais il est important que vous compreniez que les temps changent. Aujourd'hui les femmes font beaucoup de choses qu'elles ne pouvaient pas faire autrefois. Paw-Paw: Ah, je comprends! C'est Tammy qui porte la culotte et pas toi! Alors il faut que je t'achète un tablier, ma petite. Paw-Paw: Maybe, it's none of my business, but... I noticed that Tammy chose the wine instead of you. Listen, my dear, it's better that men choose the wine and that women do the cooking. Tex: Thanks for the advice, PawPaw, but it is important that you understand that times are changing. Now women do a lot of things that they used to not be able to do. Paw-Paw: Oh, I understand. It's Tammy who wears the pants, not you! Well now, I'll have to buy you an apron, my little girl. 171

173 subjunctive usage: doubt page: tas3b The choice of mood indicates the speaker's degree of uncertainty: subjunctive implies the speaker doubts the existence or possibility of what is being described; indicative implies the speaker believes or is certain that what is being described is possible or does exist. expressions of doubt and uncertainty The subjunctive occurs in dependent clauses introduced by verbs and expressions of doubt or uncertainty whenever there are two different subjects in the two clauses linked by the subordinating conjunction que. il est possible que, it is possible that il est impossibl e que, it is impossible that il est incroyable que, it is unbelievable that il est douteux que, it is doubtful that douter que, to doubt that Où est Edouard? Chez MacDo? Oh non! Il est impossible qu' Edouard soit chez MacDo! Where is Edouard? At MacDonald's? Oh no! It is impossible that Edouard be at MacDonald's! interrogatives and negatives Doubt is commonly expressed by questioning or negating a statement. Crois-tu que Corey soit chez MacDo? Oui, je crois que Corey est chez MacDo. Mais Edouard? Non, je ne crois pas qu' Edouard soit chez MacDo. Do you believe that Corey is at MacDonald's? I believe Corey is at MacDonald's. But Edouard? No, I don't believe that Edouard is at MacDonald's. The following expressions imply certainty, so when they are used in affirmative statements, they are followed by the indicative. croire que, to believe that penser que,to think that être sûr que, to be sure that trouver que, to find that se douter que, to suspect that supposer que, to suppose that avoir l 'impressi on que, to have the impression that il est vrai que, it is true that il paraît que, it appears that il est probable que, it is probable that il (me) semble que, it seems (to me) that il est clair que, it is clear that il est évident que, it is evident that il est certain que, it is certain that 172

However, when these expressions are used in either the interrogative or the negative, doubt is introduced. Consequently, in the subordinate clause, the subjunctive is used.

174 However, when these expressions are used in either the interrogative or the negative, doubt is introduced. Consequently, in the subordinate clause, the subjunctive is used. On the other hand, when expressions of doubt are negated, they indicate certainty and thus are followed by the indicative: Je ne doute pas qu'edouard est un escargot distingué (I do not doubt that Edouard is a distinguished snail = I am certain that...). In the following dialogue, the subjunctive is highlighted in blue and the indicative in orange. Tammy: Je suppose que nous allons nous marier. Il est clair que tu m'aimes. Tex: Mais Tammy, euh, je ne crois pas que tu soi s prête pour le mariage. Et puis, je ne suis pas sûr que tes parents soient d'accord. Non, non, vraiment, je ne trouve pas que ce soi t une bonne idée. Tammy: Te semble-t-il que je sois trop jeune? Tu n'es pas certain que je soi s la femme de ta vie? Tex: Oh, chérie, je ne doute pas que tu es la femme de ma vie. Mais il est évident que nous sommes trop jeunes pour le moment. En plus, il est certain que je n'ai pas encore assez d'argent. Tammy: I suppose that we are going to get married. It is clear that you love me. Tex: But, Tammy, uh, I don't think that you are ready for marriage. And then, I am not sure your parents would approve. No, no, really, I don't think this is a good idea. Tammy: Does it seem to you that I am too young? You're not sure that I am the woman of your life? Tex: Oh, my dear, I do not doubt that you are the woman of my life. But it is obvious that we are too young right now. Also, it is certain that I don't have enough money yet. relative clauses When relative clauses express uncertainty, they also trigger the use of the subjunctive. If the existence of the antecedent, or referent, is not certain, then the subjunctive is used to highlight this uncertainty. On the other hand, if the existence or possibility of the antecedent is likely and/or definite, then the doubt is removed and the indicative is used. In the following dialogue, the subjunctive is highlighted in blue and the indicative in orange. Tammy: Je cherche un tatou qui est intelligent, bilingue et intéressant. Mais à vrai dire, je l'ai déjà trouvé! Tex: Existe-t-il une seule fille qui ne so t pas obsédée par le mariage? N'y a-t-il rien qui puisse la détourner? Tammy: Y-a-t-il quelque chose qui puisse le convaincre? Tammy: I am looking for an armadillo who is intelligent, bilingual and interesting. But, actually, I have already found him! Tex: Is there one girl who is not obsessed with marriage? Isn't there anything that can divert her? Tammy: Is there anything that might convince him? 173

175 superlatives The use of a superlative can influences the choice between the subjunctive and the indicative. The subjunctive is used after superlative expressions that contain a subjective opinion. On the other hand, if the superlative expression contains a fact or a completely objective opinion, then the indicative is used since the idea is devoid of any sort of doubt. The following list contains a group of common expressions that are superlative-like in their use. le seul, the only l'unique, the only il n'y a que, there is only le dernier, the last le premier, the first le meilleur, the best In the following dialogue, the subjunctive is highlighted in blue and the indicative in orange. Tex: Tammy est la plus belle tatou que je connaisse. Mais quand même, j'ai, j'ai peur du mariage. Tammy: Tex est le seul tatou français que je connais. Il est vraiment unique. Tex: Tammy is the prettiest armadillo that I know. But even so, I'm, I'm afraid of marriage. Tammy: Tex is the only French armadillo that I know. He is truly unique. 174

subjunctive usage: will, emotion, desire page: tas4 will and desire The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses after expressions of will and desire whenever there are two different subjects in the

176 subjunctive usage: will, emotion, desire page: tas4 will and desire The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses after expressions of will and desire whenever there are two different subjects in the two clauses linked by the subordinating conjunction que. Here is a list of common verbs expressing will and desire: aimer que, to like that... préférer que, to prefer that... aimer mieux que, to prefer that... souhaiter que, to hope that... attendre que, to wait, expect that... vouloir que, to want that... désirer que, to desire that... vouloir bien que, to be willing that... exiger que, to require that... Tex veut qu' Edouard fasse la cuisine ce soir. Tex wants Edouard to cook this evening. Note however that espérer (to hope) is an exception and is followed by the indicative: 'Tex espère qu'edouard préparera du couscous ce soir' (Tex hopes that Edouard will prepare couscous this evening). Remember that when there is only one subject, the conjugated verb is followed by an infinitive: 'Edouard ne veut pas faire la cuisine' (Edouard does not want to cook). emotion The subjunctive is used after expressions of emotion and opinion. Remember that the subjunctive is found in the subordinate clause of sentences that contain a change of subject from the main clause to the subordinate clause. Here is a list of common expressions of emotion with which the subjunctive is found in the subordinate clause: être content(e) que, to be happy that être heureux(/ se) que, to be happy that être ravi(e) que, to delighted that être étonné(e) que, to be surprised that être mécontent(e) que, to be unhappy that être malheureux(/ se) que, to be unhappy that être tri ste que, to be sad that être impatient(e) que, to be impatient that être désolé(e) que, to be sorry that regretter que, to regret that se réjouir que, to rejoice, celebrate that craindre que, to fear that redouter que, to fear that avoir peur que, to fear that être surpris(e) que, to be surprised that Tammy est ravie que nous venions dîner chez elle ce soir. Fiona craint qu' on mette un pesticide autour de l'immeuble de Tammy. Tammy is delighted that we are coming to dinner at her house this evening OR Tammy's delighted that we will come to dinner at her house this evening. Fiona is afraid that they're putting pesticides around Tammy's apartment building. OR Fiona is afraid that they willl put pesticides around Tammy's apartment building. 175

177 Notice how there are two ways of translating these two sentences. Because the subjunctive is the tense for hypotheses and potentialities, it sometimes has a future meaning. Only the context will determine if the action in the subjunctive refers to the present or future time. opinion Here is a list of common impersonal expressions of opinion; there are many more such expressions since any adjective may be used. Remember that impersonal expressions always have 'il' as the subject. These expressions are followed by a dependent clause in the subjunctive. il est bon que, it is good that il est juste que, it is fair that il est dommage que, it is unfortunate that il est utile que, it is useful that il est urgent que, it is urgent that il est logique que, it is logical that one subject If expressions of emotion or opinion have only one subject throughout the sentence, then the preposition de + infinitive replaces que + subjunctive (See ways to avoid the subjunctive). Contrast the previous examples with these sentences: Tammy est ravie de recevoir des amis. Fiona craint de ne pas pouvoir venir. Il est bon de pouvoir s'amuser avec ses amis. Tammy is delighted to have friends over. OR Tammy is delighted she's going to have friends over. Fiona is afraid she cannot come. OR Fiona is afraid she won't be able to come. It is good to be able to have fun with one's friends. Tex et Tammy organisent un repas pour leurs copains ce soir. Tammy: Tex, je voudrais que tu choisisses un bon vin. Mais je préfère que ce soit un rouge s'il te plaît. Il serait dommage que nous buvions du vin blanc avec du boeuf. Tex and Tammy are preparing a meal for their friends tonight. Tammy: Tex, I would like you to pick a good wine. But I would prefer a red wine please. It would be a pity to drink a white wine with beef. Tex réfléchit un moment, puis il choisit un vin californien. Tammy: Mais enfin Tex, pas un vin américain! Il serait préférable que nous ouvrions une bouteille de Bordeaux ou de Bourgogne Tex reflects a moment and then he chooses a Californian wine. Tammy: Tex! Not an American wine! It would be better if we opened a bottle of Bordeaux or Burgundy! Tex: Ma chère Tammy, j'ai bien peur que nous n'ayons plus de vins français en réserve! Tex: My dear Tammy, I am afraid we're out of French wines! Tammy: Tu es sûr? Je suis étonnée qu'il n'y ait plus de vin français. Tammy: Are you sure? I'm really surprised that there isn't any more French wine. 176

conjunctions that take the subjunctive page: tas5 When the following conjunctions introduce a subordinate clause with a new subject, they always trigger the subjunctive.

178 conjunctions that take the subjunctive page: tas5 When the following conjunctions introduce a subordinate clause with a new subject, they always trigger the subjunctive. Remember that the subjects of the subordinate clause and of the main clause are different. In the examples below, the verb in the subjunctive is underlined. conjunctions expressing intention: pour que, afin que, de sorte que (in order that, so that) Bette drague Tex pour qu' il lui donne de bonnes notes. Bette drague Tex afin que Tammy soit jalouse. Bette drague Tex de sorte que Tammy et Tex se disputent. Bette is hitting on Tex so that he will give her good grades. Bette is hitting on Tex so that Tammy will be jealous. Bette is hitting on Tex so that Tammy and Tex will fight. Con unctions expressing fear: de crainte que, de peur que (for fear that, l est) Mais Tex n'a rien dit à Tammy de crainte qu' elle (ne)* se fâche. Il ne veut pas en parler de peur que Tammy soit blessée. But Tex hasn't said anything to Tammy for fear that [lest] she be angry. He doesn't want to bring it up for fear that [lest] Tammy be hurt. * ne is optional. It is sometimes added to certain subjunctive clauses for stylistic purposes, in these cases it does not negate the verb. conjunctions expressing time: avant que (before), en attendant que (while wai i ng for), jusqu'à ce que (until) Pourtant, il doit faire quelque chose avant que Tammy (ne) se rende compte de ce qui se passe! Tex prend un café en attendant que Tammy le rejoigne. Il va réfléchir au problème jusqu'à ce qu' elle arrive. Yet he must do something before Tammy realizes what's going on! Tex is having a cup of coffee while waiting for Tammy to join him. He's going to think about this problem until she arrives. 177

Conjunctions expressing obstacles or restrictions: bien que, quoi que (al hough), à moins que (unless) Tammy a du mal à croire l'histoire de Tex, bien qu' il ait l'air sincère.

179 Conjunctions expressing obstacles or restrictions: bien que, quoi que (al hough), à moins que (unless) Tammy a du mal à croire l'histoire de Tex, bien qu' il ait l'air sincère. Tammy: Alors Bette n'est pas une vraie amie, à moins que ce (ne) soit toi qui la drague. Tammy finds it difficult to believe Tex's story, although he looks sincere. Tammy: So Bette is not a true friend, unless it is you who has been hitting on her. conjunctions expressing a condition: à condition que (on the condition that), pourvu que (provi ded that), sans que (wi thout) Tammy: Ecoute, Tex, je veux bien te faire confiance, à condition que tu me promettes de tout me dire. Je veux bien pardonner aussi à Bette, pourvu qu' elle ne recommence pas. Tammy: Listen Tex, I'm willing to trust you, if you promise that you will tell me everything. I am also willing to forgive Bette, provided that she never does it again. conjoining conunctions which have the same subject The subjunctive is required after a few conjunctions even when the subject stays the same from the main clause to the dependent clause. These four conjunctions are bien que, quoi que, pourvu que, jusqu'à ce que. Tammy aime Tex bien qu' elle le trouve puéril par moments. Quoi que Tammy soit sûre de vouloir épouser Tex, elle ne veut pas précipiter les choses. Tex veut attendre jusqu'à ce qu' il se sente prêt. Tammy veut bien patienter un peu pourvu que Tex n'attende pas trop longtemps. Tammy loves Tex although she finds him childish at times. Although Tammy is certain she wants to marry Tex, she does not want to rush things. Tex wants to wait until he feels ready. Tammy is happy to wait a bit more provided that Tex doesn't wait too much longer. 178

180 past subjunctive page: tas6 Formation The past subjunctive resembles the passé composé in that it is formed with the present subjunctive of the appropriate auxiliary verb (avoir or être) and the past participle of the main verb. rire 'to laugh' que j'aie ri que tu aies ri qu'il / elle / on ait ri que nous ayons ri que vous ayez ri qu'ils / elles aient ri sortir 'to go out' que je sois sorti (e) que tu sois sorti (e) qu'il / elle / on soit sorti (e) que nous soyons sorti (e)s que vous soyez sorti (e)(s) qu'ils / elles soient sorti (e)s uses The past subjunctive is normally used in dependent clauses that describe an action which precedes the action of the main clause. The past subjunctive is introduced by the same kinds of clauses that introduce the present subjunctive (See subjunctive of obligation, doubt, will, emotion, desire and conjunctions that take the subjunctive). Note the past tense meaning of the event encoded in the past subjunctive. The present subjunctive, on the other hand, indicates a simultaneous action or a future action. Compare these sentences (present subjunctive in orange, past subjunctive in blue): Tammy: Je suis surprise que tu écrives ce livre. Tex: Je suis surpris que tu ai es lu ce livre. Tammy: J'ai été surprise que tu écrives ce livre. Tex: J'ai été surpris que tu ai es lu ce livre. Tammy: I am surprised that you are writing this book. Tex: I am surprised that you have read this book Tammy: I was surprised that you were writing this book. Tex: I was surprised that you had read this book Note that the tense of the verb in the main clause in French does not predict the tense of the subjunctive in the dependent clause. The choice between the present and past subjunctives depends on the chronological relationship between the two clauses. Tammy: Tex est content que la France ait gagné la Coupe du Monde en 98. Mais je doute qu'il soit sorti après la finale parce qu'il avait trop bu. Ma mère n'était pas sûre que Tex ait aimé le vin qu'elle avait envoyé. Mais j'ai peur que Tex et Edouard l'ai ent trop aimé! Tammy: Tex is happy that France won the 1998 World Cup. But, I doubt that he went out after the final game because he had drunk too much. My mom wasn't sure that Tex had liked the wine that she sent for the game. But, I'm afraid that Tex and Edouard liked it too well! 179

subjunctive summary page: tas7 WEDDINGS is a mnemonic device that can help you recall the main points concerning the subjunctive. What are some of the essential components of a wedding?

181 subjunctive summary page: tas7 WEDDINGS is a mnemonic device that can help you recall the main points concerning the subjunctive. What are some of the essential components of a wedding? First, there are always two people who get married at a wedding. And just like a wedding, the subjunctive requires two different subjects in two different clauses. Second, a ring is often used to symbolize the couple's union at a wedding. And just like the ring, the subordinating conjunction que is essential in joining together the two clauses. Remember that there are also certain other conjunctions which always require the subjunctive. And finally, the wedding party (the bride and groom and parents and friends) often run the gamut of emotions during the marriage ceremony: doubt, happiness, sadness, desire. Similarly, the subjunctive is a mood that indicates a speaker's attitude or opinion about the events expressed. The use of the subjunctive is often triggered by an expression of emotion. In summary, remember that a wedding always contains the following: two different people (subjects) joined by a ring (que) in an emotion-laden context! The different categories that describe the contexts for the subjunctive spell out weddings: WILL EMOTION DOUBT DESIRE I NTERROGATIVES NEGATIVES GENERAL STATEMENTS SUPERLATIVES Moi, je veux seulement que vous soyez heureux. Je suis heureuse que tu veuilles m'épouser, Tex! Mais Tammy, euh, je ne crois pas que tu sois prête pour le mariage. Je désire que tu m'épouses, Tex! Existe-t-il une seule fille qui ne soit pas obsédée par le mariage? Je n'ai pas l'impression que Tammy soit la femme de ta vie, Tex! Tex, mon cher, il faut que tu saches que la vie est courte. Tammy est la plus belle tatou que je connaisse! 180

ways to avoid the subjunctive page: tas8 Although the subjunctive is commonly used in French, many alternative turns of phrase are often used to avoid the subjunctive.

182 ways to avoid the subjunctive page: tas8 Although the subjunctive is commonly used in French, many alternative turns of phrase are often used to avoid the subjunctive. impersonal expressions with infinitive clauses Many impersonal expressions which take the subjunctive can be modified and completed with infinitive clauses instead. Note that the infinitive construction eliminates the subject of the original dependent clause. subjunctive Il est important que tu boives du vin. (It is important that you drink wine.) Il est préférable que tu sois poli. (It is preferable / advisable that you be polite.) Il est essentiel que tu lises les journaux. (It is essential that you read the papers.) Il est dommage que tu fumes autant. (It is a pity that you smoke so much.) infinitive Il est important de boire du vin. (It is important to drink wine.) Il est préférable d'être poli.(it is preferable / better to be polite.) Il est essentiel de li re les journaux. (It is essential to read the papers.) Il est dommage de fumer autant. (It is a pity to smoke so much.) conjunction replaced by preposition + infinitive Some conjunctions which are normally followed by the subjunctive have corresponding prepositions, so the sentence can often be rephrased using one subject, with an infinitive following the preposition. conjunction + subjunctive translation preposition + infinitive à condition que on the condition (that) à condition de afin que so that, in order to afin de à moins que unless à moins de avant que before avant de de crainte que for fear that (of), lest de crainte de de peur que for fear that (of), lest de peur de en attendant que while waiting for (to) en attendant de pour que in order that (to) pour sans que without sans 181

183 conjunction + subjunctive (2 subjects) Bette drague Tex pour que Tammy soit jalouse. Tex est victime de harcèlement sexuel! (Bette is hitting on Tex in order that Tammy be jealous. Tex is a victim of sexual harrassment!) Tex ne dit rien à Tammy de peur qu'elle se mette en colère. (Tex does not say anything to Tammy for fear that she get angry.) preposition + infinitive (1 subject) Bette drague Tex pour rendre Tammy jalouse. Tex est victime de harcèlement sexuel! (Bette is hitting on Tex in order to make Tammy jealous. Tex is a victim of sexual harrassment!) Tex ne dit rien à Tammy de peurde la mettre en colère. (Tex does not say anything to Tammy for fear of making her angry.) conjunction replaced by preposition + object Some conjunctions, like jusqu'à ce que and bien que, which introduce the subjunctive, may be restated using prepositions followed by a noun: conjunction + subjunctive Jusqu'à ce que Tammy arrive, Tex est très pensif. (Until Tammy arrives, Tex is very pensive.) Quand elle arrive, il lui sourit, bien qu'il ait des soucis. (When she arrives, he smiles at her, although he is worried.) preposition + noun Jusqu'à l'arrivée de Tammy, Tex est très pensif. (Until Tammy's arrival, Tex is very pensive.) Quand elle arrive, il lui sourit, mal gré ses soucis. (When she arrives, he smiles to her despite his worries.) other structural transformations The following pairs of sentences will give you still more ways to avoid the subjunctive. subjunctive Tammy: Je ne suis pas sûre que tu sois prêt pour le mariage. (I am not sure that you are ready for marriage.) Tammy: Il est possible que tu sois l'homme de ma vie. (It is possible that you may be the man of my life.) Bette: Je n'ai pas l'impression que Tammy soit la femme de ta vie, Tex. (I don't think that Tammy is the woman of your life.) avoiding the subjunctive Tex: Je ne sais pas si je suis prêt pour le mariage. (I don't know if I am ready for marriage.) Tex: Je suis peut-être l'homme de ta vie. (Maybe I am the man of your life.) Tammy: J'ai l'impression que Bette n'est pas la femme de ta vie, Tex. (I think that Bette is not the woman of your life.) Tex: Tammy, j'ai besoin que tu viennes (Tammy, I need you to come and see me.) me voir. Bette: Viens me voir chez moi, Tex. J'ai besoin de te voir. (Come and see me, Tex. I need to see you.) 182

184 Conditional page: tac1 The conditional is used to refer to hypothetical events. It occurs in polite requests and most frequently with if clauses. In French, it is called le conditionnel and is most often translated by would in English. formation The stem used to form the conditional is the same as the stem of the future (usually the infinitive). The conditional endings are - ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient (These are also the imperfect endings). jouer 'to play' je jouerais, I would play tu jouerais, you would play il, elle / on jouerait, he, she (it) /would play nous jouerions, we would play vous joueriez, you would play ils / elles joueraient, they would play The above formation works for -er verbs (aimer, j'aimerais), -ir verbs (finir, je finirais) and -re verbs (vendre, je vendrais). Remember to drop the final e from the infinitive stem of -re verbs. pronunciation The r in the stem is representative of the conditional, as well as the future. Only the difference in the pronunciation of the endings distinguishes the two. The difference between the je forms is subtle. Note also how the e of the infinitive of -er verbs changes in the future and conditional forms. regarder 'to look at' future conditional je regarderai tu regarderas il / elle regardera nous regarderons vous regarderez ils / elles regarderont je regarderais tu regarderais il / elle regarderait nous regarderions vous regarderiez ils / elles regarderaient 183

185 irregular stems Verbs with irregular future stems use the same irregular stems in the conditional. Here is a list of the most common irregular stems: infinitive stem conditional translation aller ir- j'irais I would go avoir aur- j'aurais I would run courir courr- je courrais I would run devoir devr- je devrais I would be obliged to envoyer enverr- j'enverrais I would send être ser- je serais I would be faire fer - je ferais I would do falloir faudr- il faudrait it would be necessary mourir mourr- je mourrais I would die obtenir obtiendr- j'obtiendrais Iwould obtain pleuvoir pleuvr- il pleuvrait it would rain pouvoir pourr- je pourrais I would be able recevoir recevr - je recevrais I would receive savoir saur- je saurais I would know tenir tiendr- je tiendrais I would hold venir viendr- je viendrais I would come voir verr- je verrais I would see vouloir voudr- je voudrais I would want verbs wi th spel li ng changes Some verbs with spelling changes in the present form their future/conditional stem regularly. These include verbs like préférer, espérer, manger, and commencer. infinitive stem conditional translation préférer préférer- je préférerais I would prefer espérer espérer- j'espérerais I would hope manger manger- je mangerais I would eat commencer commencer- je commencerais I would start Verbs with spelling changes like appeler, employer and acheter add -r to the present of the je form to create their future stem. present tense stem conditional translation j'appelle appeller - j'appellerais I would call j'emploie emploier- j'emploierais I would use j'achète achèter- j'achèterais I would buy 184

uses wishes or requests The conditional expresses potentiality. It is used to express a wish or a suggestion, to make a request, or to accept or extend invitations.

186 uses wishes or requests The conditional expresses potentiality. It is used to express a wish or a suggestion, to make a request, or to accept or extend invitations. It is less direct and more polite than the imperative. The verbs 'pouvoir', 'vouloir', and 'devoir' are often found in the conditional to diminish the strength of a command. In most cases, the conditional is translated as meaning would in English. However, je pourrais means 'I could', je devrais means 'I should' and je voudrais means 'I would like'. Also do not confuse 'would' in English meaning 'used to' which should be translated as an imparfait in French,and NOT as the conditional: A Paris, Joe- Bob allait au MacDo tous les jours. (In Paris, Joe-Bob would/used to go to McDonald's everyday). Joe-Bob et Tammy se trouvent au restaurant où Edouard travaille comme serveur. Edouard: Bonsoir Madame, Monsieur. Aimeriez-vous commander un apéritif pour commencer? Tammy: Oh oui! Pourrions-nous avoir un Ricard et un Perrier? Ensuite, je voudrais une salade verte, s'il vous plaît. Joe-Bob: Je veux un hamburger. Edouard: Monsieur, vous devriez être plus poli dans ce restaurant, sinon, je pourrais oublier votre commande! Joe-Bob and Tammy are at the restaurant where Edouard works as a waiter. Edouard: Good evening, would you like to order drinks to start? Tammy: Oh yes, could we have one Ricard and one Perrier? Then I would like a green salad, please. Joe-Bob: I want a hamburger. Edouard: Sir, you should be more polite in this resaurant, or else I could forget your order! hypothetical action The conditional is used when making statements which are contrary to present facts. It expresses a hypothethical result which depends on (stated or implied) circumstances which do not exist. In order for the action expressed by the conditional to occur, something else must take place first. Note that the condition in the si or if clause, is always stated in the imparfait. (See 'si' clauses for further examples.) Tex et Joe-Bob regardent la télé. 'Le gros lot se monte à 30 millions de dollars. Que feriez-vous si vous gagniez?' Tex: Moi, j'écrirais sans cesse des livres de philosophie. Joe-Bob: Moi j'achèterais mon diplôme d'université. Tex and Joe-Bob are watching television. 'The Lottery is at 30 million dollars. What would you do if you won?' Tex: I would write philosophy books nonstop. Joe-Bob: I would buy my university diploma. possibility or uncertainty The conditional is also used to give information whose accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Journalists often use it to report events which are not known to be true. Tammy et Bette regardent la télé. Soudain, leur programme préféré est interrompu et un commentateur annonce: Une tornade vient de s'abattre sur Hubbard, Texas. Il y aurait plusieurs victimes. Un tatou et un écureuil seraient gravement blessés. Restez avec nous, nous devrions avoir plus de détails d'ici quelques secondes...' Presque immédiatement, le téléphone sonne. Tammy répond: A..., Allô?' A l'autre bout, Tex dit: 'Tammy, c'est moi, Tex. Ne t'inquiète pas, on va très bien. Je rentrerai bientôt.' Tammy and Bette are watching television. Suddenly, their favorite program is interrupted and a commentator announces: A tornado just struck in Hubbard, Texas. Allegedly, there are several casualties. An armadillo and a squirrel seem to be seriously wounded. Stay with us, we should have more details in a few seconds...' Almost immediately, the phone rings. Tammy answers: 'He..., Hello?' At the other end, Tex says: 'Tammy, it's me Tex. Don't worry we're fine. I'll be home soon.' reported speech (indirect discourse) 185

187 In addition, the conditional is used to represent the future in relation to a narration in the past when reported speech is used to tell what someone said. Tex a dit qu'il rentrerait bientôt. Tex said he would be home soon. 186

188 Past Conditional page: tac2 The past conditional represents, as its name implies, the past of the present conditional mood. In French, the past conditional is called le passé du conditionnel or le conditionnel antérieur. Both the present and past conditional express hypothetical situations or conditions. formation The past conditional is a compound tense, i.e. it has two parts, an auxiliary and the past participle. The past conditional is formed with the conditional of the auxiliary (either avoir or être) and the past participle of the main verb. Past conditional = auxiliary in the conditional + past participle dire 'to say' j'aurais dit, I would have said tu aurais dit, you would have said il / elle / on aurait dit, he, she (it) / one would have said nous aurions dit, we would have said vous auriez dit, you would have said ils / elles auraient dit, they would have said In the past conditional (as with the passé composé), you have to choose between avoir and être as the auxiliary. While most verbs use avoir as an auxiliary, pronominal verbs and verbs of movement generally use être (see the Alamo of être). Just as for the passé composé with être, in the past conditional with être, the past participle agrees in gender and in number with the subject. partir 'to leave' je serais parti(e), I would have left tu serais parti(e), you would have left il / elle / on serait parti/partie, he, she (it) / one would have left nous serions parti(e)s, we would have left vous seriez parti(s), you would have left ils / elles seraient partis/ parties, they would have left uses Like the present conditional, the past conditional is used for hypotheses. Unlike the present conditional, however, it is used to describe or imagine events and actions which failed to happen. This is why it is often used to express regret about events which did not occur. In most cases, the past conditional is translated as meaning would have as in English. However, j'aurais pu means 'I could have'; j'aurais dû means 'I should have', and j'aurais voulu means 'I would have liked'. Tex: J'aurais aimé être artiste. Corey: J'aurais voulu être beau. Tammy: Je n'aurais pas dû écouter Bette. Edouard: J'aurais pu être un chef célèbre! Tex: I would have liked to be an artist. Corey: I would have liked to be handsome. Tammy: I should not have listened to Bette. Edouard: I could have been a famous chef! 187

189 The past conditional is found in si clauses with the pluperfect. This is because si clauses with the pluperfect also describe events that did not occur, or rather conditions which were not fulfilled so that the event in the past conditional could occur. In the dialogue below, all the verbs in the past conditional describe events that would have happened had the original condition been fulfilled. Note that the unfulfilled condition is implied in each occurrence of the past conditional. Tex et Edouard discutent de la vie en Amérique. Edouard: Si tu n'avais pas vendu de T- shirts aux touristes, qu'est-ce qui serait arrivé? Tex: Ben, d'un côté, je serais resté en France, bien sûr. Mais, de l'autre, je n'aurais pas connu le Texas et je ne serais pas devenu ami avec Tammy. Et tous mes copains ici auraient perdu l'occasion de connaître un philosophe distingué! Tex and Edouard are discussing life in America. Edouard: If you hadn't sold t-shirts to tourists, what would have happened? Tex: Well, on the one hand, I would have stayed in France, of course. But on the other hand, I would not have seen Texas and I would not have become friends with Tammy. And all my friends here would have lost the opportunity to know a distinguished philosopher! possibility or uncertainty The past conditional, like the present conditional, gives information on a past event about which the accuracy cannot be guaranteed. It is used by journalists and reporters. Tammy et Bette regardent la télé. Soudain, leur programme préféré est interrompu et un commentateur annonce: 'Une tornade vient de s'abattre sur Hubbard, Texas. Elle aurait fait plusieurs victimes. Un tatou et un écureuil aurai entété gravement blessés... ' Presque immédiatement, le téléphone sonne. Tammy répond 'A..., Allô?' A l'autre bout, Tex dit 'Tammy, c'est moi, Tex. Ne t'inquiète pas, on va très bien. Je rentrerai bientôt.' Tammy and Bette are watching television. Suddenly, their favorite program is interrupted and a commentator announces: 'A tornado just struck in Hubbard, Texas. It is said to have caused several casualties. An armadillo and a squirrel seem to have been seriously wounded...' Almost immediately, the phone rings. Tammy answers, 'He..., Hello?' At the other end, Tex says, 'Tammy, it's me Tex. Don't worry we're fine. I'll be home soon.' reported speech (indirect discourse) Just as the conditional represents the future in a past time narration, the past conditional represents the future perfect (futur antérieur) in a past time narration to tell what someone would have done. Tex a dit qu'il serait rentré plus tôt, si l'orage n'avait pas éclaté. Tex said he would have been home sooner, if it had not stormed. 188

si clauses page: tac3 Si clauses (if clauses in English) indicate possibilities, which may or may not become reality. They refer to the present, past, and future.

190 si clauses page: tac3 Si clauses (if clauses in English) indicate possibilities, which may or may not become reality. They refer to the present, past, and future. These conditional sentences have two parts: the condition, or si clause, and the main or result clause which indicates what will happen if the condition of the si clause is met. The tense of the result clause depends on the tense of the si clause. In other words, the tense of the two clauses follow a prescribed sequence. si + present (présent) si clause si + present (possible condition) result clause present or future or imperative This first type of si clause is used in cases where the condition may be fulfilled and thus the consequence is seen as possible. In the following dialogue, you will see si clauses in the present followed by result clauses in the present, in the future and in the imperative: Tammy est en train de lire un petit quizz sur la personnalité et l'amour dans un magazine. Tammy: Si tu veux, tu peux répondre aux questions, Tex. Tex: D'accord. Mais si tu peux, choisis les questions les plus croustillantes! Tammy: Entendu. Première question: Qu'estce que vous ferez demain... si vous trouvez l'amour de votre vie? Tex: Si je rencontre l'amour de ma vie, je l'épouserai, bien sûr! Tammy is reading a little quiz about personality and love in a magazine. Tammy: If you want, you can answer the questions, Tex. Tex: OK, but choose the juiciest questions if you can! Tammy: OK. First question: What will you do tomorrow... if you find the love of your life? Tex: If I meet the love of my life, I will marry her, of course! Note that either the si clause or the result clause may begin a sentence, but the same tenses remain specific to each clause ('Qu'est-ce que vous ferez demain si vous trouvez l'amour de votre vie?' is the same as 'Si vous trouvez l'amour de votre vie, qu'est-ce que vous ferez?') si + i mperfect (imparfait) si clause si + imperfect (contrary to current facts) result clause conditional This second type of si clause is contrary to fact in the present. The consequence is thus seen as impossible. Note that in French, the imperfect is used in the si clause, never the conditional. 189

191 Le quizz continue. Tammy: Si vous étiez une voiture, que seriez-vous? Tex: Si j'étais une voiture, je serais la légendaire 2CV. Tammy: Si vous étiez un fruit, lequel choisiriez-vous? Tex: Si j'étais un fruit, je choisirais le raisin pour pouvoir me transformer en vin. Tammy: Si vous étiez une femme, que feriez-vous? Tex: Si j'étais une femme, je ne lirais pas les quiz dans les magazines. The quiz continues. If you were a car, what would you be? Tex: If I were a car, I would be the legendary 2CV. Tammy: If you were a fruit, which one would you choose? Tex: If I were a fruit, I would choose grapes, so that I could be transformed into wine. Tammy: If you were a woman, what would you do? Tex: If I were a woman, I would not read the quizzes in magazines. si + pluperfect (plus-que-parfait) si clause si + pluperfect (contrary to past facts) result clause past conditional This last type of si clause is used for situations that are contrary to past fact. The result clause thus expresses an unrealized past possibility. Et le quizz continue. Tammy: Qu'est-ce que vous auri ez fait, si vous étiez né à College Station? Tex: Si j'étais né à College Station, j'aurais préféré Texas A&M à UT. Quelle horreur! Tammy: Si vous n'aviez pas connu Tammy, qu'est-ce que vous auriez fait? Tex: Je n'aurais jamais répondu à un tel quizz, si je n'avais pas connu Tammy! And the quiz continues. Tammy: What would you have done, if you had been born in College Station? Tex: If I had been born in College Station, I would have preferred Texas A&M over UT! How terrible! Tammy: If you hadn't met Tammy, what would you have done? Tex: I would never have taken such a quiz, if I hadn't met Tammy! Distinguish between si clauses (if-clauses) and questions that are reported in indirect speech. Observe the difference between these two sentences: Question in indirect speech Si clause Tex demande si Tammy est prête. Tex: Tammy, si tu es prête, on peut partir tout de suite. Tex is asking if Tammy is ready. Tex: Tammy, if you are ready, we can leave right now. 190

Reported Speech in the Present page: tad1 reporting statements To report what someone else says or thinks, link the main clause (il dit, il pense, etc.

192 Reported Speech in the Present page: tad1 reporting statements To report what someone else says or thinks, link the main clause (il dit, il pense, etc.) and the subordinate clause with que (qu' in front of a word beginning with a vowel): Tex et Tammy ont une querelle d'amoureux. Fiona essaie de les raccommoder. Tammy: Tu ne m'écoutes jamais! Tex (devant la télé): Je n'ai pas entendu. Fiona: Elle dit que tu ne l'écoutes jamais. Tex and Tammy are having a lovers' tiff. Fiona is trying to patch things up. Tammy: You never listen to me! Tex (in front of the TV): I did not hear. Fiona: She is saying that you never listen to her. reporting questions To report simple yes/no questions, use si. Note that si changes to s' in front of a word beginning with an i (s'il ), but does not change before other vowels (si elle, si on). Tammy: Est-ce que tu vas faire un effort? Tex (toujours devant la télé): Quoi? Fiona: Elle te demande si tu vas faire un effort. Tex: Bien sûr, mais après le match de foot. Tammy: Are you going to make an effort? Tex (still in front of the TV): What? Fiona: She is asking you if you are going to make an effort. Tex: Sure, but after the soccer game. To report an information question use the interrogative word quand, comment, où, etc.: Tammy: Où étais-tu hier soir? Comment as-tu rencontré cette grande blonde? Quand finit ce match? Tex: Comment? Fiona: Elle te demande où tu étais hier soir, comment tu as rencontré cette grande blonde et quand ce match finit. Tammy: Where were you last night? How did you meet that tall blonde? When does this game finish? Tex: Excuse-me? Fiona: She is asking you where you were last night, how you met that tall blonde and when this game finishes. To report questions starting with que, qu'est -ce que, and qu'est -ce qui, use ce que and ce qui. Note that the inverted subject and verb return to normal order when reporting a que question: Tex: Je ne comprends pas! Qu'est-ce qu'elle veut dire? Qu'est-ce qui se passe? Fiona: Tammy, Tex ne comprend pas ce que tu veux dire. Il ne comprend pas ce qui se passe. Tammy: Que faisait-il avec cette grande blonde? Fiona: Tex, Tammy veut savoir ce que tu faisais avec cette grande blonde. Tex: I don't understand! What does she mean? What's going on? Fiona: Tammy, Tex does not understand what you mean. He does not understand what's going on. Tammy: What was he doing with that tall blonde? Fiona: Tex, Tammy wants to know what you were doing with that tall blonde. 191

193 reporting orders To report an order, replace the imperative by de (d') + infinitive: Tammy: Tex, éteins tout de suite cette télévision! Ecoute-moi! Ne fais pas l'idiot! Tex: Pardon? Fiona: Tammy t'ordonne d'éteindre tout de suite cette télévision. En plus, elle te dit de l'écouter. Elle te demande de ne pas faire l'idiot. Tammy: Tex, turn this TV off immediately! Listen to me! Don't be stupid! Tex: Excuse me? Fiona: Tammy is ordering you to turn this TV off immediately. And she is telling you to listen to her. She is asking you not to be stupid. reporting answers To report yes and no answers, use que: Plus tard, Fiona raconte la fin de l'histoire à ses amis. Fiona:... et soudain, Tammy demande à Tex s'il peut éteindre la télé et il lui répond que NON. Later, Fiona tells the end of the story to her friends. Fiona:... and suddenly, Tammy asks Tex if he can turn off the TV and he answers NO. 192

Reported Speech in the past page: tad2 reporting statements To report what has been said or thought in the past, link the main clause introduced by 'il a dit', 'je pensais', etc.

194 Reported Speech in the past page: tad2 reporting statements To report what has been said or thought in the past, link the main clause introduced by 'il a dit', 'je pensais', etc. and the subordinate clause with que/qu'. The tense of the verb in the subordinate clause also changes. Trey: Je suis amoureux de toi Tammy! Tammy: Comment? Tex m'a dit que tu avais une petite amie! Trey: I am in love with you Tammy. Tammy: What? Tex told me you had a girlfriend! what tense in the subordinate clause? When the main clause is in the past, the subordinate clause must also be in the past tense. They belong to the same time frame. This rule is known in French as the 'concordance des temps,' the agreement or concordance of the tenses. Look at these examples: quote present Tammy: Hé Tex, j'aime beaucoup ton frère Trey. (Hey Tex, I really like your brother Trey. passé compose Tammy : Trey est devenu sexy. (Trey has become sexy.) future Tammy : Nous louerons la vidéo 'Les Liaisons dangereuses.' (We'll rent the video 'Dangerous Liaisons.') reported speech => imparfait Elle a dit qu'elle aimait beaucoup Trey. (She said that she really liked Trey.) => plus -que-parfait Elle a dit que Trey était devenu sexy. (She said that Trey had become sexy.) => conditional Elle a dit qu'ils loueraient la vidéo... (She said that they would rent the video...) reporting questions To report yes/no questions, use si. Note that si changes to s' in front of a word beginning with an i (s'il), but does not change before other vowels (si elle, sion). Tammy: Tu aimes les films horreur? Trey: Qu'est-ce que tu as dit? Tammy: Je t'ai demandé si tu aimais les films horreur. Tammy: Do you like horror films? Trey: What did you say? Tammy: I asked if you liked horror films. To report an information question use the interrogative word quand, comment, où, etc.: Trey: Quand vas-tu quitter mon frère? Tammy: Qu'est-ce que tu disais? Trey: Je te demandais quand tu allais quitter mon frère. Trey: When are you going to leave my brother? Tammy: What were you saying? Trey: I was asking you when you were going to leave my brother. 193

195 To report questions starting with que, qu'est -ce que, and qu'est -ce qui, use ceque (ce qu') and ce qui : Tex: Trey, qu'est-ce que tu vas faire ce soir avec Tammy? Trey: Qu'est-ce que tu as dit? Tex: Je te demandais ce que tu allais faire ce soir avec Tammy. Tex: Trey, what are you going to do tonight with Tammy? Trey: What did you say? Tex: I was asking what you were goint to do with Tammy tonight. reporting orders To report an order, replace the imperative by de/d' + infinitive: Tex: Sois poli avec Tammy! Ne flirte pas avec elle! Trey: Hein? Corey: Tex t'a dit d'être poli avec Tammy et de ne pas flirter avec elle! Tex: Be polite with Tammy! Don't flirt with her! Trey: Huh? Corey: Tex told you to be polite with Tammy and not to flirt with her! reporting answers Note that to report yes/no sentences use que: Trey: Tammy, tu veux m'épouser? Tammy: Non. Trey: Qu'as-tu dit? Tammy: Je t'ai dit que non. C'est Tex que j'aime! Trey: Tammy, do you want to marry me? Tammy: No. Trey: What did you say? Tammy: I told you no. It is Tex I love. Fiona et Bette ont entendu dire que Trey a demandé à Tammy de l'épouser. Fiona: Je t'assure Bette, Trey m'a raconté qu'il avait acheté une grosse bague en diamants pour Tammy. Bette: Et moi qui croyait que Trey était amoureux de moi! Quelle déception! Fiona: Mais je n'ai pas susi Tammy avat raconté l'histoire à Tex ou si elle avait gardé le secret! Alors chut! Fiona and Bette have heard rumors that Trey has proposed to Tammy. Fiona: Really Bette, Trey told me that he had bought a big diamond ring for Tammy. Bette: And I thought that Trey was in love with me! What a disappointment! Fiona: But I did not find out if Tammy had told the story to Tex or if she had kept it secret... So shush! 194

196 Active vs. passive voice 'Voice' refers to the relationship between the subject and the verb in a sentence. A sentence is said to be in the active voice if the subject is performing the action of the verb. For example, 'Tex is calling Tammy.' In this sentence, the subject (Tex) performs the action of calling Tammy. Active subjects are called 'agents'. The passive voice, on the other hand, refers to a sentence in which the subject receives the action. In other words, the subject is passive, or acted upon by the agent. For example: 'Tammy is being called by Tex.' In this sentence, Tammy receives the action performed by Tex, the agent. page: tav1 formation = conjugated form of être + past participle of main verb (+ par + agent) Note that the past participle always agrees in number and gender with the subject. Les Aggies sont battus (par les Longhorns). Les Aggies ont été battus (par les Longhorns). Les Aggies seront battus (par les Longhorns). The Aggies are beaten (by the Longhorns). The Aggies were beaten (by the Longhorns). The Aggies will be beaten (by the Longhorns). The agent, when mentioned, is usually preceded by par. However, with the verbs aimer, connaître, and respecter, the agent is introduced by de instead. Tammy est aimée de Tex. Tex est bien connu de toutes les étudiantes et respecté de tous les professeurs. Tammy is loved by Tex. Tex is well-known to all the female students and respected by all the professors. uses The passive voice places the focus on the object of the verb rather than the subject: Tex a écrit le livre Guerre et Amour. Le livre Guerre et Amour a été écrit par Tex. Tex wrote the book War and Love. The book War and Love was written by Tex. The passive voice draws attention to an event without necessarily mentioning who is responsible for it: Oh, Corey et Fiona ont été enlevés! Oh, Corey and Fiona were abducted! The passive voice is often used for inventions, laws, and, logically enough, for events that one falls victim to: Les parents de Tex ont été écrasés. La loi SOS-tatou a été votée. Un nouveau genre de grammaire a été créé. Tex' parents were run over. The SOS-armadillo law has been passed. A new kind of grammar was created. 195

197 ways to avoid the passive The passive voice is used more frequently in English than in French. Thus, in French, when the agent of the verb can be identified, it is better to use the active voice and make the agent the subject of the verb. A common way to avoid the passive in French is to use the active voice with on as the subject. For example, 'I was told that Tex loves Tammy' would be translated as 'Onm'a dit que Tex aimait Tammy'. When making general statements about known facts, pronominal verbs are often used: Le football américain se joue à onze. Le vin rouge se boit à température ambiante. Les frites se mangent avec du ketchup. Le français se parle en Louisiane. Football is played with 11 players. Red wine is drunk at room temperature. Fries are eaten with ketchup. French is spoken in Louisiana. Tammy et Tex regardent les informations à la télé. Le journaliste déclare: Aujourd'hui, l'équipe des Aggies a été battue et le moral des joueurs est profondément affecté par cette défaite, la dixième fois de suite cette saison. Par contre, les Longhorns ont beaucoup de succès. Depuis que le trophée Heisman a été remporté par le légendaire Ricky Williams, rien ne les arrête. Tammy and Tex are watching the news on TV. The journalist states: Today, the team of the Aggies was defeated and the morale of the players is deeply affected by this defeat, the tenth time in a row this season. In contrast, the Longhorns are having a lot of success. Since the Heisman trophy was won by the lengendary Ricky Williams, nothing can stop them. 196

198 Interrogatives page: int1 Introduction to Interrogatives An interrogative construction is a grammatical form used to ask a question. There are two kinds of questions: yes/no questions and information questions. So-called yes/no questions may be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no'. Are you a student at the University of Texas? Have you ever been to Sixth Street or Barton Springs? Do you know how many Aggies it takes to screw in a lightbulb? Information questions contain a specific interrogative word (who, what, when, why, how) and cannot be answered with a yes or no. Their purpose is to elicit a specific piece of information. Who is Tex? When did he come to Texas? How did he learn French? Besides using 'est-ce que', questions in French can be formed by inversion of the subject and verb. Parlez-vous français? Do you speak French? formulating questions The word 'do' is used in English question formation. In similar fashion, French yes / no questions can be formed with the phrase est-ce que. There are several other ways to ask a question in French. For instance, a tag question is a question word or phrase 'tagged' on to the end of a statement which requires a confirmation with a 'yes' or 'no' answer. Vous parlez français, n'est-ce pas? You speak French, don't you? Finally, the most common way to ask a question in French conversation is to use rising intonation. In this kind of interrogative construction, the word order is the same as a declarative sentence, but the speaker's voice rises at the end to signal the question. 197

Yes/No Questions: est-ce que, n'est-ce pas page: int2 questions with intonation One of the easiest ways to ask a question that may be answered by yes/no is to raise the pitch of your voice at the end

199 Yes/No Questions: est-ce que, n'est-ce pas page: int2 questions with intonation One of the easiest ways to ask a question that may be answered by yes/no is to raise the pitch of your voice at the end of a statement. In a declarative statement, the pitch normally falls. Tex: Trey, tu aimes la philosophie? Tex: Trey, do you like philosophy? Trey: Non. Je n'aime pas la philosophie. Trey: No. I do not like philosophy. Tex: Tu connais Sartre? Tex: Do you know Sartre? Trey: Non. Qui est-ce? Trey: No. Who is that? Tex: Gloups! C'est l'auteur du chef ar d'oeuvre existentialiste, La Nausée. ar questions using 'est-ce que...?' Another way to ask a yes/no question is to place est-ce que before a statement. Note that que becomes qu' before a vowel. Trey: Et toi, Tex, est-ce que tu aimes les films? Tex: Bien sûr, j'adore les films. Trey: Est-ce que tu connais Yoda? Tex: Non. Qui est-ce? Trey: Duh... Trey: And you, Tex, do you like films? Tex: Of course, I adore films. Trey: Do you know Yoda? Tex: No. Who is that? Trey: Duh questions using 'n'est-ce pas?' N'est-ce pas? ar Trey: Tu connais 'La guerre des étoiles,'n'est-ce pas? Yoda, c'est le petit sage. Trey: Yoda est mon héros. Tu ne connaispas Yoda? Tex: Ah, si, si, si*, je connais le petit philosophe. Est-ce que tu es fou? Yodan'est pas Sartre. Trey: Oh, mais la philosophie de Yoda est plus intéressante que la philosophie existentialiste de La Nausée! Tu esd'accord, n'est-ce pas? Tex: Quel crétin! Retourne à tes jeux électroniques! Trey: You know 'Star Wars,' don't you? Yoda is the little wise man. Trey: Yoda is my hero. You don't know Yoda? Tex: Ah, yes, yes, yes, I do know the little philosopher. Are you crazy? Yoda is not Sartre. Trey: Oh, but Yoda's philosophy is more interesting than the existentialist philosophy of La Nausée! You agree, don't you? Tex: What an idiot! Go back to your video games! *Si is used to answer 'yes' to a negative question. 198

Questions with subject/verb inversion page: int3 inversion Formal questions may be asked by reversing the subject pronoun/verb order and linking the two with a hyphen.

200 Questions with subject/verb inversion page: int3 inversion Formal questions may be asked by reversing the subject pronoun/verb order and linking the two with a hyphen. You may have already seen inversion in fixed expressions like the following greetings: 'Comment allez-vous?', 'Comment vous appelez-vous?', 'Quelle heure est-il?'. Joe-Bob choisit ses cours pour le semestre prochain. Job-Bob: Corey, as-tu des idées? Tammy et Bette, connaissezvous de bons cours? Joe-Bob is choosing his classes for next semester. Joe-Bob: Corey, do you have any ideas? Tammy and Bette, do you know any good courses? addition of -t- in third person singular In the third person singular, when the verb ends in a vowel, a -t- is added to make the liaison possible. Corey se parle à lui-même: himself: Voyons. Joe-Bob aime-t-il les lettres? Non! A-t-il envie d'étudier les maths? Non! Va-t-il devenir médecin? Oh, jamais! Aime-t-il les filles? Oui! Alors, j'ai une idée. Corey: Joe- Bob... Joe-Bob: Mmm. Corey: J'ai un cours pour toi: 'La vie intime des Corey thinks to Let's see. Does Joe-Bob like the humanities? No! Does he want to study math? No! Is he going to become a doctor? Oh, never!does he like girls? Yes! So, I have an idea. Corey: Joe- Bob... Joe-Bob: Mmm. Corey: I have a course for you: 'Animal Intimacy.' animaux.' addition of a pronoun with a noun or proper name When the subject is a proper name or noun, the corresponding subject pronoun (il, elle, ils, or elles ) is added for inversion with the verb. Joe-Bob: Et les belles filles suivent-elles ce cours? Corey: Oh, oui. Joe-Bob: Ce cours est-il difficile? Corey: Oh, non ça. Joe-Bob: Do pretty girls take this class? Corey: Oh, yes. Joe-Bob: Is this class difficult? Corey: Oh, no. 199

compound tenses In compound tenses, such as the passé composé, the subject pronoun is inverted with the auxiliary (the conjugated verb). Joe-Bob: Corey, as-tu suivi ce cours?

201 compound tenses In compound tenses, such as the passé composé, the subject pronoun is inverted with the auxiliary (the conjugated verb). Joe-Bob: Corey, as-tu suivi ce cours? Corey: Oui, mais j'ai raté l'examen final. Joe-Bob: Corey, did you take this class? Corey: Yes, but I flunked the final exam. negation Ne precedes the conjugated verb and the second half of the negative (pas, j amai s, pl us, etc.) follows the pronoun. Joe-Bob: Pourquoi n'as-tu pas réussi l'examen? Corey: Oh, j'ai trouvé que l'examen était trop technique. Moi, je suis plus romantique que scientifique. Joe-Bob: Why didn't you pass the exam? Corey: Oh, I thought that the exam was too technical. I am more romantic than scientific. 'est-ce' and 'y a-t-il' The inverted forms of 'c'est' and 'il y a' are est-ce and y a-t-il Joe-Bob: Est-ce possible? N'y a-t-il pas un seul cours facile pour moi? Joe-Bob: Is this possible? Isn't there a single easy course for me? 200

Interrogative and Exclamative: quel page: int4 Quel is an adjective. Like any other adjective, it agrees in number and gender with the noun it modifies.

mascul ine singular mascul ine plural feminine singular feminine plural quel quels quelle quelles interrogative quel Quel is generally translated into English by 'what' or 'which'.

202 Interrogative and Exclamative: quel page: int4 Quel is an adjective. Like any other adjective, it agrees in number and gender with the noun it modifies. Remember to make the liaison between quels / quelles and a following word beginning with a vowel (quels animaux). mascul ine singular mascul ine plural feminine singular feminine plural quel quels quelle quelles interrogative quel Quel is generally translated into English by 'what' or 'which'. It is always followed by a noun or by the verb 'être' + noun. Un petit tatou: Maman, maman, quel est le nom de ce tatou? Rita: Oh, c'est Tex, ton oncle. Un petit tatou: Quel âge atex?. Rita: On ne sait pas. Un petit tatou: Quelles sont les qualités de Tex? Rita: Oh, il est intelligent,débrouillard, mais aussi cynique et pessimiste. A little armadillo: What's the name of this armadillo? Rita: Oh, it's Tex, your uncle. A little armadillo: How old istex? Rita: We don't know. A little armadillo: What are Tex's good points? Rita: Oh, he's intelligent,resourceful, but also cynical and pessimistic. exclamative quel Quel may also be used for emphasis. In this instance, quel is followed either by an adjective or a noun, and it means 'what' or 'what a'. Note that there is an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence. Tammy: Quel beau tatou! Tammy: What a handsome armadillo! Joe-Bob: Non, quel tatou snob! Quelle belleminette! Tammy: Quelle chatte méchante! Joe-Bob: No, what a snobby armadillo! What a beautiful kitty! Tammy: What a mean cat! Ah, quels animaux absurdes! Ah, what absurd animals! 201

interrogative pronouns page: int5 questions about people Qui is used to ask questions about people. It may be the subject or the direct object in a sentence and thus, can mean either 'who?' or 'whom?

203 interrogative pronouns page: int5 questions about people Qui is used to ask questions about people. It may be the subject or the direct object in a sentence and thus, can mean either 'who?' or 'whom?' You may also choose to use the longer forms: qui est-ce qui to ask 'who?', qui est-ce que to ask 'whom?' As the subject: qui, qui est-ce qui As the direct object: qui, qui est-ce que Bette: Qui est à la porte? Oh, c'est toi, Tammy. Qui cherches-tu? Tammy: Je cherche Tex. Bette: Il n'est pas là. Bette: Who is at the door? Oh, it's you Tammy. Whom are you looking for? Tammy: I'm looking for Tex. Bette: He's not here. Cinq minutes plus tard... Five minutes later... Bette: Encore! Qui est-ce qui est à la porte? Oh! C'est toi, Tex! Qui est-ce que tu cherches? Moi peut-être? Tex: Non, je cherche Tammy. Bette: Elle n'est pas là. Bette: Again! Who is at the door? Oh! It's you Tex! Whom are you looking for? Me perhaps? Tex: No, I'm looking for Tammy. Bette: She's not here. As the object of a preposition: qui Tex: Ouvre! Ouvre! Bette: Oui?! Tex: Tu as vu Tammy? Bette: Oui. Tex: Avec qui est-ce qu'elle est partie? Bette: Pour qui me prends-tu? Je ne la surveille pas! Tex: Oh, la, la, calme-toi, ma petite. Tex: Open! Open! Bette: Yes?! Tex: Have you seen Tammy? Bette: Yes. Tex: Whom did she leave with? Bette: Who do you think I am (whom do you take me for)? I don't watch her! Tex: Oh, la, la, calm down, my little one. 202

questions about things Qu'est-ce qui, que and its longer form qu'est-ce que are used to ask questions about things. They are used to ask 'what?'. Que and its longer form qu'est-ce que are direct objects in a sentence, whereas qu'est-ce qui may be used only as the subject.

204 questions about things Qu'est-ce qui, que and its longer form qu'est-ce que are used to ask questions about things. They are used to ask 'what?'. Que and its longer form qu'est-ce que are direct objects in a sentence, whereas qu'est-ce qui may be used only as the subject. (There is no short form of qu'est-ce qui.) As the subject: qu'est-ce qui As the direct object: que, qu'est-ce que As the object of a preposition: quoi Tammy arrive chez Bette. Elle voit Tex et Bette ensemble. Tammy: Qu'est-ce qui se passe, Tex? Tex: Rien, mon chou, je te cherchais. Tammy: Oui, d'accord, mais qu'est-ce que tu fais avec... elle! Tex: Oh, de quoi tu parles? Tammy: Tex, ne fais pas l'innocent avec moi Tammy arrives at Bette's house. She sees Tex and Bette together Tammy: What's going on, Tex? Tex: Nothing, my dear. I was looking foryou. Tammy: Yes, ok, but what are you doing with... her! Tex: Oh, what are you talking about? Tammy: Don't act innocent with me! 203

Interrogative pronoun lequel page: int6 Lequel, lesquels, laquelle, lesquelles are pronouns, i.e. they are used in place of a noun. They are used to ask the questions 'which one?' or 'which ones?

205 Interrogative pronoun lequel page: int6 Lequel, lesquels, laquelle, lesquelles are pronouns, i.e. they are used in place of a noun. They are used to ask the questions 'which one?' or 'which ones?' They assume the number and gender of the nouns they replace and contract with the prepositions à and de. Preposition Masculie si ngular Masculine plural Femi ni ne singular Femi nine plural lequel l esquels l aquelle l esquelles with à auquel auxquels à laquelle auxquelles with de duquel desquels de laquelle desquelles Corey: Oh Tammy, j'adore les films sur les insectes! Tammy: Lesquels tu aimes? Corey: Oh, 'A Bug's Life,' et puis 'Antz,' les classiques quoi! Tammy: Et tu préfères lequel? Corey: Hmm... Probablement 'The Fly.' Tex: I love bug movies! Tammy: Which ones do you like? Tex: Oh, 'A Bug's Life,' and then 'Antz,' in other words, the classics! Tammy: Which one do you prefer? Corey: Hmm... Probably 'The Fly.' 204

Negative sentence structures

Negative sentence structures So far, when making negative sentences, we only used the structure ne pas. There are actually other ways to make negative sentences and to convey other meanings with negative sentences. In this lesson,