Poking Holes in Faulty Logic AP Language and Composition

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1 Pking Hles in Faulty Lgic AP Language and Cmpsitin Mr. Cia Tues 1/3 Extra-Credit rewrites are Due tday It s an A day, and the essays must be in the Inbx n later than 8:30 am tday Wed 1/4 Review new unit guide Begin 102 Wrds; review wrds 1-10 The basic persuasive questin: Write a carefully reasned essay in which yu defend, challenge, r qualify an authr s psitin as stated in the passage r Write a carefully reasned essay in which yu explre the validity f the authr s assertin. The Three Appeals: Lgs, Paths, Eths Write a persuasive paragraph in all three ways (pick a tpic fr parents, teachers, business) Hw d restaurants use persuasin t get us t eat there? Reading time in Fast Fd Natin HW: FFN reading; create vcab cards 1-30 Fri 1/6 Rhetrical Devices Match Game (spend 15 minutes per week) Begin Lgical Fallacies Explain Lgical Fallacies Prject Signup fr ne fallacy Explain and discuss Ad hminim and Either/Or Wrk time n LF Prject Reading time in Fast Fd Natin HW: FFN reading; paper; Lgical Fallacy Prject Tues 1/10 FFN Intrd-p.107 Due Reactin Paper #1 Due: 450 wrds n analyzing Schlsser s argument in this first half f ur reading. Use terms and ideas frm ur study f rhetrical devices. Class discussin n the bk Imprtant peple/ideas/histry Vcab Quiz 1-10 (Yu ll need cards 1-30 t take the quiz) LF Prject Presentatins 1-4 Reading time in Fast Fd Natin Name: Date: Per: Thurs 1/12 FFN Due Reactin paper #2 due 450 wrds n yur reactin t the reading. Hw persuasive is he? Hw des he d it? Sharing respnses LF Prject Presentatins 5-10 Reading time in Fast Fd Natin HW: FFN reading; Reactin #3; Lgical Fallacy Prject Tues 1/17 Vcab Quiz Class discussin LF Prject Presentatins HW: FFN reading; Reactin #3; Lgical Fallacy Prject Thurs 1/19 FFN Due Reactin paper #3 due 450 wrds n yur reactin t the reading. Explain hw America wuld react / shuld react t this infrmatin. Hw d peple ignre it? LF Prject Presentatins Begin Super Size Me Mn 1/23 Vcab Quiz (Yu ll need cards 1-30 t take the quiz) LF Prject Presentatins (if needed) Watch Super Size Me T Be Annunced Exam date and perid: Exam will cver: Fast Fd Natin (Yur bk is yur ticket t take the exam. N bk = n exam) Vcabulary 1-30 (Yu ll need cards 1-30) Lgical Fallacies Rhetrical Devices One AP-style essay HW: FFN reading; Reactin #2; Lgical Fallacy Prject

2 Cntent Standards fr this Unit: E1b: The student reads and cmprehends at least fur bks (r bk equivalents) abut ne issue r subject, r fur bks by a single writer, r fur bks in ne genre, and prduces evidence f reading that: Cmpnents: E1b.1: makes and supprts warranted and respnsible assertins abut the texts; E1b.2: supprts assertins with elabrated and cnvincing evidence; E1b.3: draws the texts tgether t cmpare and cntrast themes, characters, and ideas; E1b.4: makes perceptive and well develped cnnectins; E2a: The student prduces a reprt that: Cmpnents: E2a.2: develps a cntrlling idea that cnveys a perspective n the subject; E2a.3: creates an rganizing structure apprpriate t purpse, audience, and cntext; E2a.4: includes apprpriate facts and details; E2e.4: includes apprpriate infrmatin and arguments; E3b: The student participates in grup meetings, in which the student; Cmpnent: E3b.1: displays apprpriate turn-taking behavirs; E3b.2: actively slicits anther persn s cmment r pinin; E3b.3: ffers wn pinin frcefully withut dminating; E3b.4: respnds apprpriately t cmments and questins; E3b.5: vlunteers cntributins and respnds when directly slicited by teacher r discussin leader; E3b.6: gives reasns in supprt f pinins expressed; E3d: The student makes infrmed judgments abut televisin, radi, and film prductins; that is, the student: Cmpnents: E3d.2: evaluates the rle f the media in fcusing attentin and in frming pinin; E3e.2: identifies types f arguments (e.g. causatin, authrity, analgy, patritism, emtin, ethics) and identifies types f lgical fallacies (e.g. ad hminem, inferring causatin frm crrelatin, vergeneralizatin, faulty syllgism, red herring, begging the questin); E5a: The student respnds t nn-fictin, fictin, petry, and drama using interpretive, critical, and evaluative prcesses; that is, the student: Cmpnents: E5a.1: makes thematic cnnectins amng literary texts, public discurse, and media; E5a.2: evaluates the impact f authrs decisins regarding wrd chice, style, cntent, and literary elements; E5a.5: explains the effect f pint f view; E5a.6: makes inferences and draws cnclusins abut fictinal and nn-fictinal cntexts, events, characters, settings, themes, and styles; E5a.7: interprets the effect f literary devices, such as figurative language, allusin, dictin, dialgue, descriptin, symblism; E5a.8: evaluates the stance f a writer in shaping the presentatin f a subject; 2

3 Assignments: Reactin Papers (60 pints) Yu will write three reactin papers fr ur reading f Eric Schlsser s Fast Fd Natin. Each will be abut wrds. In each, yu will be lking at the arguments Schlsser makes t drive his message. Take special nte as t his use f the three appeals, pssible lgical fallacies, and ther rhetrical devices. This is nt a did-yu-like-it? paper. Thse written as such will nt receive credit. Rather, yu are t analyze the rhetric f the bk. Of curse, yur paper will prve yur wrk n the reading. Even thugh they are nt Shwcase papers, please use the same frmat. Lgical Fallacies Prject (30 pints) Yu will pick a fallacy t wrk with n this prject Yu will define the fallacy in yur wn wrds. Yu will write three riginal examples frm the teenager s pint-f-view Yu will create an 8.5 x 11 pster shwcasing this infrmatin. Include a brder, riginal wrds, interesting graphics, and a creative layut Yu will present yur findings t the class in the frm f a shrt lessn Extra credit: If yu find and include a cmic strip r magazine clipping clearly shwing the fallacy, yu ll earn an additinal 5 pints. Rhetrical Devices Game Nw it s yur turn t fcus n learning these devices. Edie Parrt, anther AP Language teacher, has created this excellent tl t help yu learn these devices. Frm nw until the test, I expect yu t spend 15 minutes per week n this learning tl. Since yu need t check my website nce per weekend, why nt cmbine the tw activities? Here s the address: I suggest that yu bkmark it. 102 Wrds Every Educated Persn Shuld Knw (10-20 pints per quiz) Starting this week, we ll cver a list f ppular SAT wrds. We ll learn ten per week. Yu ll need t create index cards fr each. One ne side, the wrd and the part f speech; n the ther, yu ll have the definitin (the full ne listed) and yur riginal sentence. We ll have a cumulative quiz n the first class f each week. Yu ll need yur cmplete cards as yur ticket t ride. This will increase yur vcabulary fr the SAT, fr the AP test, r fr simply being an educated human. 3

4 Lgical Fallacy Prject Scring Guide Name: Date f Presentatin: Lgical Fallacy: Pster Lgical Fallacy is clearly defined with riginal examples Pster includes a brder, riginal wrds, interesting graphics, and a creative layut Presentatin Student teaches he meaning and cntent f the fallacy Presentatin includes apprpriate use f vice, eye cntact, pace, and gestures Cnclusin is thughtful and thught-prvking. Has a clear ending (nt S, yeah. That s it. ) 0 3 Extra Credit Presentatin included a cmic strip / magazine clipping f the fallacy 0 5 / 30 4

5 Lgical Fallacy List AP Language and Cmpsitin Mr. Cia Faulty Lgic Equals Weak Papers and Weak Arguments 1) Ad hminim ( t the man )- Attacking the individual instead f the argument. Example: Yu are s stupid yu argument culdn't pssibly be true. Example: I figured that yu culdn't pssibly get it right, s I ignred yur cmment. Example: Dawkins, in his characteristic bluntness, likens peple wh believe in Gd t children wh believe in Santa Claus. 2) Appeal t frce - The hearer is tld that smething bad will happen t him if he des nt accept the argument. Example: If yu dn't want t get beat up, yu will agree with what I say. Example: Cnvert r die. 3) Appeal t Ignrance - this cmes in tw frms: (1) Nt knwing that a certain statement is true is taken t be a prf that it is false. (2) Nt knwing that a statement is false is taken t be a prf that it is true. The fallacy ccurs in cases where absence f evidence is nt gd enugh evidence f absence. The fallacy uses an unjustified attempt t shift the burden f prf. The fallacy is als called "Argument frm Ignrance." Example: Nbdy has ever prved t me there's a Gd, s I knw there is n Gd. Example: Annie must be a vegetarian; she didn't rder the rast beef at the wedding. (Maybe Annie desn't care fr rast beef; maybe she prefers salmn.) 4) Appeal t Pity - The hearer is urged t accept the argument based upn an appeal t emtins, sympathy, etc. Example: Yu we me big time because I really stuck my neck ut fr yu. Example: Oh cme n, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline. 5

6 5) Appeal t the ppular (Argumentum ad Ppulum) - the hearer is urged t accept a psitin because a majrity f peple hld t it. Example: The majrity f peple like sda. Therefre, sda is gd. Example: Everyne else is ding it. Why shuldn't yu? Bandwagn Apprach: Everybdy is ding it. This argumentum ad ppulum asserts that, since the majrity f peple believes an argument r chses a particular curse f actin, the argument must be true, r the curse f actin must be fllwed, r the decisin must be the best chice. Fr instance, 85% f cnsumers purchase IBM cmputers rather than Macintsh; all thse peple can t be wrng. IBM must make the best cmputers. Ppular acceptance f any argument des nt prve it t be valid, nr des ppular use f any prduct necessarily prve it is the best ne. After all, 85% f peple may nce have thught planet earth was flat, but that majrity's belief didn't mean the earth really was flat when they believed it! Keep this in mind, and remember that everybdy shuld avid this type f lgical fallacy. Patritic Apprach: "Draping neself in the flag." This argument asserts that a certain stance is true r crrect because it is smehw patritic, and that thse wh disagree are unpatritic. It verlaps with paths and argumentum ad hminem t a certain extent. The best way t spt it is t lk fr emtinally charged terms like Americanism, rugged individualism, mtherhd, patritism, gdless cmmunism, etc. A true American wuld never use this apprach. And a truly free man will exercise his American right t drink beer, since beer belngs in this great cuntry f urs. Snb Apprach: This type f argumentum ad ppulum desn t assert everybdy is ding it, but rather that all the best peple are ding it. Fr instance, Any true intellectual wuld recgnize the necessity fr studying lgical fallacies. The implicatin is that anyne wh fails t recgnize the truth f the authr s assertin is nt an intellectual, and thus the reader had best recgnize that necessity. 6) Appeal t traditin - trying t get smene t accept smething because it has been dne r believed fr a lng time. Example: This is the way we've always dne it. Therefre, it is the right way. Example: The Cathlic church's traditin demnstrates that this dctrine is true. Example: Jeffersn City has kept its urban grwth bundary at six miles fr the past thirty years. That has been gd enugh fr thirty years, s why shuld we change it nw? If it ain t brke, dn t fix it. 7) Begging the Questin - Assuming the thing t be true that yu are trying t prve. It is circular. (als called Circular Argument) Example: Gd exists because the Bible says s. The Bible is inspired. Therefre, we knw that Gd exists. Example: I am a gd wrker because Frank says s. Hw can we trust Frank? Simple. I will vuch fr him. 6

7 8) Cause and Effect - assuming that the effect is related t a cause because the events ccur tgether. Example: When the rster crws, the sun rises. Therefre, the rster causes the sun t rise. Example: When the fuel light ges n in my car, I sn run ut f gas. Therefre, the fuel light causes my car t run ut f gas. 9) Divisin - assuming that what is true f the whle is true fr the parts. Example: That car is blue. Therefre, its engine is blue. Example: Yur family is weird. That means that yu are weird t. 10) Either/Or Fallacy (als called "the Black-and-White Fallacy" and "False Dilemma"): This fallacy ccurs when a writer builds an argument upn the assumptin that there are nly tw chices r pssible utcmes when actually there are several. Outcmes are seldm s simple. This fallacy mst frequently appears in cnnectin t sweeping generalizatins: Example: Either we must ban X r the American way f life will cllapse. Example: We g t war with Canada, r else Canada will eventually grw in ppulatin and verwhelm the United States. Example: Either yu drink Burpsy Cla, r yu will have n friends and n scial life. Example: Either yu must avid either/r fallacies, r everyne will think yu are flish. Example: Yu either did knck the glass ver r yu did nt. Which is it? Example: D yu still beat yur wife? Example: America: lve it r leave it. 11) Equivcatin - The same term is used in an argument in different places but the wrd has different meanings. Example: A bird in the hand is wrth tw in the bush. Therefre, a bird is wrth mre than President Bush. Example: Evlutin states that ne species can change int anther. We see that cars have evlved int different styles. Therefre, since evlutin is a fact in cars, it is true in species. 12) False Analgy - When reasning by analgy, the fallacy ccurs when the analgy is irrelevant r very weak r when there is a mre relevant disanalgy. Example: The bk Investing fr Dummies really helped me understand my finances better. The bk Chess fr Dummies was written by the same authr, was published by the same press, and csts abut the same amunt, s it wuld prbably help me understand my finances as well. Example: Just as in time the gentle rain can wear dwn the tallest muntains, s, in human life, all prblems can be slved by patience and quiet persistence. Example: We shuldn't put s much effrt int adult literacy prgrams. After all, there is n pint crying ver spilled milk. 7

8 13) Genetic Fallacy - The attempt t endrse r disqualify a claim because f the rigin r irrelevant histry f the claim. Example: The Nazi regime develped the Vlkswagen Beetle. Therefre, yu shuld nt by a VW Beetle because f wh started it. Example: Frank's just gt ut f jail last year and since it was his idea t start the hardware stre, I can't trust him. 14) Guilt by Assciatin - Rejecting an argument r claim because the persn prpsing it likes smene is disliked by anther. Example: Hitler liked dgs. Therefre dgs are bad. Example: Yur friend is a thief. Therefre, I cannt trust yu. 15) Hasty Generalizatin - A hasty generalizatin draws a general rule frm a single, atypical case. It is the reverse f a sweeping generalizatin. A special case is used as the basis f a general rule. Example: American Bill Gates wns mre mney than many small cuntries. Therefre, each American wns mre mney than many small cuntries. Example: Fred, the Australian, stle my wallet. Thus, all Australians are thieves. (Of curse, we shuldn't judge all Australians n the basis f ne example.) Example: I asked six f my friends what they thught f the new spending restraints and they agreed it is a gd idea. The new restraints are therefre generally ppular. Example: Jana has been t San Dieg several times, and the sky was always blue and the temperature ideal. The weather must be perfect in San Dieg all the time. Example: Tina bught a used camera while she was up in Prtland, and gt a great deal. Prtland must be a gd place t buy used cameras. Example: Jim Bakker was an insincere Christian. Therefre all Christians are insincere. Example: My parents smked all their lives and they never gt cancer. 16) Nn Sequitar - Cmments r infrmatin that d nt lgically fllw frm a premise r the cnclusin. Example: We knw why it rained tday, because I washed my car. Example: I dn't care what yu say. We dn't need any mre bkshelves. As lng as the carpet is clean, we are fine. Example: Giving up ur nuclear arsenal in the 1980's weakened the United States' military. Giving up nuclear weapnry als weakened China in the 1990s. Fr this reasn, it is wrng t try t utlaw pistls and rifles in the United States tday. Example: Since Egyptians did s much excavatin t cnstruct the pyramids, they were well versed in palentlgy. 17) Pisning the well - Presenting negative infrmatin abut a persn befre he/she speaks s as t discredit the persn's argument. Example: Frank is pmpus, arrgant, and thinks he knws everything. S, let's hear what Frank has t say abut the subject. Example: Dn't listen t him because he is a lser. 8

9 18) Pst Hc, Erg Prpter Hc ( after this therefre because f this") - An argument frm a premise f the frm "A preceded B" t a cnclusin f the frm "A caused B." Simply because ne event prceeds anther event in time des nt mean that the first event is the cause f the secnd event. This argument resembles a fallacy knwn as a Hasty Generalizatin. Example: Immigratin t Alberta frm Ontari increased. Sn after, the welfare rlls increased. Therefre, the increased immigratin caused the increased welfare rlls. Example: I tk EZ-N-Cld, and tw days later, my cld disappeared. 19) Red Herring - The intrductin f a tpic nt related t the subject at hand. Example: I knw yur car isn't wrking right. But, if yu had gne t the stre ne day earlier, yu'd nt be having prblems. Example: I knw I frgt t depsit the check int the bank yesterday. But, nthing I d pleases yu. Example: Yu may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime -- but what abut the victims f crime? Hw d yu think surviving family members feel when they see the man wh murdered their sn kept in prisn at their expense? Is it right that they shuld pay fr their sn's murderer t be fed and hused? 20) Slippery Slpe In rder t shw that a psitin is unacceptable, a sequence f increasingly unacceptable events is shwn t fllw frm that psitin. Example: If we pass laws against fully-autmatic weapns, then it wn't be lng befre we pass laws n all weapns, and then we will begin t restrict ther rights, and finally we will end up living in a cmmunist state. Thus, we shuld nt ban fullyautmatic weapns. Example: Yu shuld never gamble. Once yu start gambling yu find it hard t stp. Sn yu are spending all yur mney n gambling, and eventually yu will turn t crime t supprt yur earnings. Example: If I make an exceptin fr yu then I have t make an exceptin fr everyne. 21) Special Pleading (duble standard) - Applying a different standard t anther that is applied t neself. Example: Yu can't pssibly understand menpause because yu are a man. Example: Thse rules dn't apply t me since since I am lder than yu. 22) Straw Man Argument - Prducing an argument t attack that is a weaker representatin f the truth. It is any lame attempt t "prve" an argument by verstating, exaggerating, r ver-simplifying the arguments f the ppsing side. Example: The gvernment desn't take care f the pr because it desn't have a tax specifically t supprt the pr. Example: We knw that evlutin is false because we did nt evlve frm mnkeys. Example: We shuld have the draft. Peple dn't want t enter the military because they find it an incnvenience. But they shuld realize that there are mre imprtant things than cnvenience. 9

10 23) Sweeping Generalizatin - A sweeping generalizatin is ne in which there seems t be sufficient evidence ffered t draw a cnclusin, but the cnclusin drawn far exceeds what the evidence supprts. Applies a special rule t a general case. Example: The prfit margin n HP's printer line has been a steady 25% fr tw years. We can assume, then, that the prfits cmpany-wide have als been 25%. Example: The pll frm Orange Cunty shws the gvernr winning in a landslide. I guess he will als win acrss the state just as easily. Example: The majrity f peple in the United States die in hspitals, s stay ut f them. Example: Men are statistically mre aggressive than wmen. Therefre, I, a male, must be mre aggressive than yu, a female. 24) Tw Wrngs Make a Right - When yu defend yur wrng actin as being right because smene previusly has acted wrngly, yu cmmit the fallacy called "tw wrngs make a right." This is a kind f ad hminem fallacy. Example: Ops, n paper this mrning. Smebdy in ur apartment building prbably stle my newspaper. S, that makes it OK fr me t steal ne frm my neighbr's drmat while nbdy is ut here in the hallway. Bill has brrwed Jane's expensive pen, but fund he didn't return it. He tell's himself that it is kay t keep it, since she wuld have taken his. Example: Jane: "Did yu hear abut thse terrrists killing thse pr peple? That srt f killing is just wrng." Sue: "Thse terrrists are justified. After all, their land was taken frm them. It is mrally right fr them t d what they d." Jane: "Even when they blw up buslads f children?" Sue: "Yes." Example: After leaving a stre, Jill ntices that she has underpaid by $10. She decides nt t return the mney t the stre because if she had verpaid, they wuld nt have returned the mney. Example: Jill is hrrified by the way the state uses capital punishment. Bill says that capital punishment is fine, since thse the state kill dn't have any qualms abut killing thers. 10

11 A.P. Language and Cmpsitin Rhetrical Terms & Glssary (Thanks t Edie Parrt n 3fates.rg) Try the matching game at Abstract refers t language that describes cncepts rather than cncrete images ( ideas and qualities rather than bservable r specific things, peple, r places). The bservable r physical is usually described in cncrete language. Ad Hminem In an argument, this is an attack n the persn rather than n the ppnent s ideas. It cmes frm the Latin meaning against the man. Allegry an extended narrative in prse r verse in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract qualities and in which the writer intends a secnd meaning t be read beneath the surface f the stry; the underlying meaning may be mral, religius, plitical, scial, r satiric. Alliteratin repetitin f cnsnant sunds at the beginning f wrds that are clse t ne anther: Mickey Muse; Dnald Duck Allusin a reference t a well-knwn persn, place, r thing frm literature, histry, etc. Example: Eden Analgy Cmparisn f tw similar but different things, usually t clarify an actin r a relatinship, such as cmparing the wrk f a heart t that f a pump. An analgy is a cmparisn t a directly parallel case. Anaphra Repetitin f a wrd, phrase, r clause at the beginning f tw r mre sentences in a rw. This is a deliberate frm f repetitin and helps make the writer s pint mre cherent. (Example: There was the delight I caught in seeing lng straight rws. There was the faint, cl kiss f sensuality. There was the vague sense f the infinite... ) Anecdte a shrt, simple narrative f an incident; ften used fr humrus effect r t make a pint. Anntatin Explanatry ntes added t a text t explain, cite surces, r give bibligraphical data. Antithesis the presentatin f tw cntrasting images. The ideas are balanced by wrd, phrase, clause, r paragraphs. T be r nt t be... Ask nt what yur cuntry can d fr yu, ask what yu can d fr yur cuntry... Aphrism a shrt, ften witty statement f a principle r a truth abut life: Early bird gets the wrm. Apstrphe usually in petry but smetimes in prse; the device f calling ut t an imaginary, dead, r absent persn r t a place, thing, r persnified abstractin Argumentatin writing that attempts t prve the validity f a pint f view r an idea by presenting reasned arguments; persuasive writing is a frm f argumentatin 11

12 Assnance repetitin f vwel sunds between different cnsnants, such as in neigh/fade Asyndetn Cmmas used (with n cnjunctin) t separate a series f wrds. The parts are emphasized equally when the cnjunctin is mitted; in additin, the use f cmmas with n intervening cnjunctin speeds up the flw f the sentence. Asyndetn takes the frm f X, Y, Z as ppsed t X, Y, and Z. Cacphny harsh, awkward, r dissnant sunds used deliberately in petry r prse; the ppsite f euphny. Caricature descriptive writing that greatly exaggerates a specific feature f a persn s appearance r a faced f persnality. Cllquialism a wrd r phrase (including slang) used in everyday cnversatin and infrmal writing but that is ften inapprpriate in frmal writing (y all, ain t) Cherence quality f a piece f writing in which all the parts cntribute t the develpment f the central idea, theme, r rganizing principle Cncrete Language Language that describes specific, bservable things, peple, r places, rather than ideas r qualities. Cnntatin implied r suggested meaning f a wrd because f its assciatin in the reader s mind. Cnsnance repetitin f identical cnsnant sunds within tw r mre wrds in clse prximity, as in bst/best; it can als be seen within several cmpund wrds, such as fulfill and ping-png Cnundrum a riddle whse answer is r invlves a pun; it may als be a paradx r difficult prblem Deductin the prcess f mving frm a general rule t a specific example Dentatin literal meaning f a wrd as defined Descriptin the picturing in wrds f smething r smene thrugh detailed bservatin f clr, mtin, sund, taste, smell, and tuch; ne f the fur mdes f discurse Dictin wrd chice, an element f style; Dictin creates tne, attitude, and style, as well as meaning. Different types and arrangements f wrds have significant effects n meaning. An essay written in academic dictin wuld be much less clrful, but perhaps mre precise than street slang. Didactic writing whse purpse is t instruct r t teach. A didactic wrk is usually frmal and fcuses n mral r ethical cncerns. Didactic writing may be fictin r nnfictin that teaches a specific lessn r mral r prvides a mdel f crrect behavir r thinking. Discurse spken r written language, including literary wrks; the fur traditinally classified mdes f discurse are descriptin, expsitin, narratin, and persuasin. Dissnance harsh r grating sunds that d nt g tgether Dramatic Irny When the reader is aware f an incnsistency between a fictinal r nnfictinal character s perceptin f a situatin and the truth f that situatin. 12

13 Emtinal Appeal When a writer appeals t readers emtins (ften thrugh paths) t excite and invlve them in the argument. Epigraph the use f a qutatin at the beginning f a wrk that hints at its theme. Hemingway begins The Sun Als Rises with tw epigraphs. One f them is Yu are all a lst generatin by Gertrude Stein. Ethical Appeal When a writer tries t persuade the audience t respect and believe him r her based n a presentatin f image f self thrugh the text. Reputatin is smetimes a factr in ethical appeal, but in all cases the aim is t gain the audience s cnfidence. Euphemism a mre acceptable and usually mre pleasant way f saying smething that might be inapprpriate r uncmfrtable. He went t his final reward is a cmmn euphemism fr he died. Euphemisms are als ften used t bscure the reality f a situatin. The military uses cllateral damage t indicate civilian deaths in a military peratin. Euphny a successin f harmnius sunds used in petry r prse; the ppsite f cacphny Example An individual instance taken t be representative f a general pattern. Arguing by example is cnsidered reliable if examples are demnstrable true r factual as well as relevant. Explicatin The art f interpreting r discvering the meaning f a text. Explicatin usually invlves clse reading and special attentin t figurative language. Expsitin the immediate revelatin t the audience f the setting and ther backgrund infrmatin necessary fr understanding the plt; als, explanatin; ne f the fur mdes f discurse Extended Metaphr a sustained cmparisn, ften referred t as a cnceit. The extended metaphr is develped thrughut a piece f writing False Analgy When tw cases are nt sufficiently parallel t lead readers t accept a claim f cnnectin between them. Figurative Language language that cntains figures f speech, such as similes and metaphrs, in rder t create assciatins that are imaginative rather than literal. Figures f Speech expressins, such as similes, metaphrs, and persnificatins, that make imaginative, rather than literal, cmparisns r assciatins. Freshadwing the use f a hint r clue t suggest a larger event that ccurs late in the wrk Freight-Train Sentence cnsisting f three r mre very shrt independent clauses jined by cnjunctins. Generalizatin When a writer bases a claim upn an islated example r asserts that a claim is certain rather than prbable. Sweeping generalizatins ccur when a writer asserts that a claim applies t all instances instead f sme. Genre a type f literary wrk, such as a nvel r pem; there are als subgenres, such as science fictin 13

14 r snnet, within the larger genres Hubris the excessive pride f ambitin that leads a tragic her t disregard warnings f impending dm, eventually causing his r her dwnfall. Humr anything that causes laughter r amusement; up until the end f the Renaissance, humr meant a persn s temperament Hyperble deliberate exaggeratin in rder t create humr r emphasis (Example: He was s hungry he culd have eaten a hrse.) Image A wrd r wrds, either figurative r literal, used t describe a sensry experience r an bject perceived by the sense. An image is always a cncrete representatin. Imagery wrds r phrases that use a cllectin f images t appeal t ne r mre f the five senses in rder t create a mental picture Inductin the prcess that mves frm a given series f specifics t a generalizatin Inference a cnclusin ne can draw frm the presented details Interir Mnlgue writing that recrds the cnversatin that ccurs inside a character s head Invective a verbally abusive attack Inversin reversing the custmary (subject first, then verb, then cmplement) rder f elements in a sentence r phrase; it is used effectively in many cases, such as psing a questin: Are yu ging t the stre? Usually, the element that appears first is emphasized mre than the subject. Irny a situatin r statement in which the actual utcme r meaning is ppsite t what was expected. Jargn The special language f a prfessin r grup. The term jargn usually has pejrative assciatins, with the implicatin that jargn is evasive, tedius, and unintelligible t utsiders. The writings f the lawyer and the literary critic are bth susceptible t jargn. Lgic the prcess f reasning Lgical Fallacy a mistake in reasning Lyrical Snglike; characterized by emtins, subjectivity, and imaginatin. Metaphr a figure f speech in which ne thing is referred t as anther; fr example, my lve is a fragile flwer Metnymy a figure f speech that uses the name f an bject, persn, r idea t represent smething with which it is assciated, such as using the crwn t refer t a mnarch ; Als, The pen is mightier than the swrd. Mde the methd r frm f a literary wrk; the manner in which a wrk f literature is written 14

15 Md similar t tne, md is the primary emtinal attitude f a wrk (the feeling f the wrk; the atmsphere). Syntax is als a determiner f md because sentence strength, length, and cmplexity affect pacing. Mral The lessn drawn frm a fictinal r nnfictinal stry. It can als mean a heavily didactic stry. Mtif main theme r subject f a wrk that is elabrated n in the develpment f the piece; a repeated pattern r idea Narratin the telling f a stry in fictin, nnfictin, petry, r drama; ne f the fur mdes f discurse Negative-Psitive Sentence that begins by stating what is NOT true, then ending by stating what is true. Nn-sequitur Latin fr it des nt fllw. When ne statement isn t lgically cnnected t anther Objectivity an impersnal presentatin f events and characters. It is a writer s attempt t remve himself r herself frm any subjective, persnal invlvement in a stry. Hard news jurnalism is frequently prized fr its bjectivity, althugh even fictinal stries can be tld withut a writer rendering persnal judgment. Onmatpeia the use f wrds that sund like what they mean, such as hiss, buzz, slam, and bm Oversimplificatin When a writer bscures r denies the cmplexity f the issues in an argument Oxymrn a figure f speech cmpsed f cntradictry wrds r phrases, such as wise fl, bitter-sweet, pretty ugly, jumb shrimp, cld fire Pacing the mvement f a literary piece frm ne pint r ne sectin t anther Parable a shrt tale that teaches a mral; similar t but shrter than an allegry Paradx a statement that seems t cntradict itself but that turns ut t have a ratinal meaning, as in this qutatin frm Henry David Threau; I never fund the cmpanin that was s cmpaninable as slitude. Parallelism the technique f arranging wrds, phrases, clauses, r larger structures by placing them side by side and making them similar in frm. Parallel structure may be as simple as listing tw r three mdifiers in a rw t describe the same nun r verb; it may take the frm f tw r mre f the same type f phrases (prepsitinal, participial, gerund, appsitive) that mdify the same nun r verb; it may als take the frm f tw r mre subrdinate clauses that mdify the same nun r verb. Or, parallel structure may be a cmplex bend f singe-wrd, phrase, and clause parallelism all in the same sentence. Example (frm Churchill): We shall fight n the beaches, we shall fight n the landing grunds, we shall fight in the fields. Pardy a wrk that ridicules the style f anther wrk by imitating and exaggerating its elements.. It can be utterly mcking r gently humrus. It depends n allusin and exaggerates and distrts the riginal style and cntent. 15

16 Paths the aspects f a literary wrk that elicit srrw r pity frm the audience. An appeal t emtin that can be used as a means t persuade. Over-emtinalism can be the result f an excess f paths. Pedantic a term used t describe writing that brders n lecturing. It is schlarly and academic and ften verly difficult and distant Persnificatin the attributin f human qualities t a nnhuman r an inanimate bject Persuasin a frm f argumentatin, ne f the fur mdes f discurse; language intended t cnvince thrugh appeals t reasn r emtin. Pint f View the perspective frm which a stry is presented; cmmn pints f view include the fllwing: First persn narratr a narratr, referred t as I, wh is a character in the stry and relates the actins thrugh his r her wn perspective, als revealing his r her wn thughts Stream f Cnsciusness like a first persn narratr, but instead placing the reader inside the character s head, making the reader privy t the cntinuus, chatic flw f discnnected, half-frmed thughts and impressins in the character s mind Omniscient third persn narratr, referred t as he, she, r they, wh is able t see int each character s mind and understands all the actin Limited Omniscient a third persn narratr wh reprts the thughts f nly ne character and generally nly what that ne character sees Objective a third persn narratr wh nly reprts what wuld be visible t a camera; thughts and feelings are nly revealed if a character speaks f them Plysyndetn Sentence which uses and r anther cnjunctin (with n cmmas) t separate the items in a series. Plysyndetn appear in the frm f X and Y and Z, stressing equally each member f a series. It makes the sentence slwer and the items mre emphatic than in the asyndetn. Prtagnist the main character f a literary wrk Red Herring When a writer raises an irrelevant issue t draw attentin away frm the real issue Reducti ad Absurdum the Latin fr t reduce t the absurd. This is a technique useful in creating a cmic effect and is als an argumentative technique. It is cnsidered a rhetrical fallacy because it reduces an argument t an either/r chice Reginalism an element in literature that cnveys a realistic prtrayal f a specific gegraphical lcale, using the lcale and its influences as a majr part f the plt Repetitin Wrd r phrase used tw r mre times in clse prximity 16

17 Rhetric the art f effective cmmunicatin, especially persuasive discurse; Rhetric fcuses n the interrelatinship f inventin, arrangement, and style in rder t create felicitus and apprpriate discurse. Rhetrical mdes expsitin, descriptin, narratin, argumentatin Rhetrical Questin ne that des nt expect an explicit answer. It is used t pse an idea t be cnsidered by the speaker r audience. Sarcasm harsh, caustic persnal remarks t r abut smene; less subtle than irny Satire A wrk that reveals a critical attitude tward sme element f human behavir by prtraying it in an extreme way. Satire desn t simply abuse (as in invective) r get persnal (as in sarcasm). Satire targets grups r large cncepts rather than individuals. Setting Time and place f a literary wrk Simile a figure f speech that uses like, as, r as if t make a direct cmparisn between tw essentially different bjects, actins, r qualities; fr example, The sky lked like an artist s canvas. Speaker the vice f a wrk; an authr may speak as himself r herself r as a fictitius persna Steretype a character wh represents a trait that is usually attributed t a particular scial r racial grup and wh lacks individuality; a cnventinal patter, expressin r idea. Straw Man When a writer argues against a claim that nbdy actually hlds r is universally cnsidered weak. Setting up a straw man diverts attentin frm the real issues. Style an authr s characteristic manner f expressin his r her dictin, syntax, imagery, structure, and cntent all cntribute t style Subjectivity a persnal presentatin f evens and characters, influenced by the authr s feelings and pinins Syllgism A frm f reasning in which tw statements are made and a cnclusin is drawn frm them. A syllgism is the frmat f a frmal argument that cnsists f a majr premise, a minr premise, and a cnclusin. Example: Majr Premise: All tragedies end unhappily. Minr Premise: Hamlet is a tragedy. Cnclusin: Therefre, Hamlet ends unhappily. Symblism the use f symbls r anything that is meant t be taken bth literally and as representative f a higher and mre cmplex significance Synecdche a figure f speech in which a part f smething is used t represent a whle, such as using bards t mean a stage r wheels t mean a car r All hands n deck. Syntactic Fluency Ability t create a variety f sentence structures, apprpriately cmplex and/r simple and varied in length. 17

18 Syntactic Permutatin Sentence structures that are extrardinarily cmplex and invlved. They are ften difficult fr a reader t fllw. Syntax the grammatical structure f a sentence; the arrangement f wrds in a sentence. Syntax includes length f sentence, kinds f sentences (questins, exclamatins, declarative sentences, rhetrical questins, simple, cmplex, r cmpund). Theme the central idea r message r a literary wrk Thesis the main idea f a piece f writing. It presents the authr s assertin r claim. The effectiveness f a presentatin is ften based n hw well the writer presents, develps, and supprts the thesis. Tne the characteristic emtin r attitude f an authr tward the characters, subject, and audience (anger, sarcastic, lving, didactic, emtinal, etc.) Transitin a wrd r phrase that links ne idea t the next and carries the reader frm sentence t sentence, paragraph t paragraph. Tricln Sentence cnsisting f three parts f equal imprtance and length, usually three independent clauses. Understatement the ppsite f exaggeratin. It is a technique fr develping irny and/r humr where ne writes r says less than intended. Unity quality f a piece f writing (als see cherence) Vice refers t tw different areas f writing. One refers t the relatinship between a sentence s subject and verb (active and passive vice). The secnd refers t the ttal sund f a writer s style. 18